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DURHAM,  N.  C. 


HIGHWAYS 

AND 

HIGHWAY  THAN SPORTATION 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/highwayshighwayt01chat 


© Major  Hamilton  Maxwell 
© Underwood  and  Underwood 


STORM  KING  HIGHWAY 


HIGHWAYS 

AND 

HIGHWAY  TRANSPORTATION 


BY 

GEORGE  R.  CHATBURN,  A.M.,  C.E. 

Professor  of  Applied  Mechanics  and  Machine  Design 
Lecturer  on  Highway  Engineering 
The  University  of  Nebraska 


121617 

NEW  YORK 

THOMAS  Y.  CROWELL  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright  1923,  by 

THOMAS  Y.  CROWELL  COMPANY 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


PREFACE 


The  following  pages  on  Highways  and  Highway  Trans- 
portation do  not  pretend  to  be  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  the 
subject,  but  rather  a glimpse  of  the  vast  development  of  the 
humble  road  and  its  office  as  an  agency  for  transportation. 
Possibly  the  grandeur  of  the  mountains  is  best  appreciated 
by  one  who  lives  among  them,  who  climbs  their  acelivitous 
heights,  who  daily  experiences  their  power  and  majesty, 
and  measures  their  magnitude  by  grim  muscular  exertion. 
But,  even  so,  it  would  be  foolish  to  contend  that  he  who 
gets  his  information  from  the  seat  of  a Pullman  car  receives 
no  benefit  from  the  hasty  glimpse,  or,  that  his  imagination 
is  not  quickened  and  cultured  by  the  experience.  In  writ- 
ing this  book,  then,  I have  had  constantly  in  mind  the 
myriads  of  people  who  have  not  the  time,  and  possibly  not 
the  facilities,  to  search  the  pages  of  the  literature  of  the 
past  for  the  origin  and  development,  or  to  work  out  their 
present  importance,  of  our  amplification  of  roads  and  of 
read  uses.  It  is  felt  that  many  of  these  people  laudably 
desire  a conversational  knowledge  of  the  origin,  evolution 
and  present  status  of  highway  transportation,  even  though 
it  be  glimpsed  by  a very  rapid  passage  through  a very  large 
subject. 

The  primary  objects  have  therefore  been,  to  sketch  briefly 
and  simply  the  development  of  the  transportation  systems 
of  the  United  States,  to  indicate  their  importance  and 
mutual  relations,  to  present  some  practical  methods  used 
in  the  operation  of  highway  transport  and  to  make  occa- 
sional suggestions  for  the  betterment  of  the  road  as  a usable 
machine  for  the  benefit  and  pleasure  of  mankind. 

Any  observations  made  or  conclusions  drawn  are  purely 
personal.  I entered  into  and  have  carried  on  the  work 
entirely  unbiased.  I am  not  financially  or  otherwise,  except 
academically,  interested  in  any  firm  or  company  whose 

v 

121817 


VI 


Preface 


business  has  to  do  with  transportation  either  directly  as  a 
carrier,  or  indirectly  as  a manufacturer  of  the  instruments 
or  accessories  to  transportation,  nor  does  any  of  my  living 
come  from  societies  or  foundations  organized  as  propa- 
gandists for  any  particular  forms  of  transportation,  or 
transportation  materials  or  equipment.  I have  no  admira- 
tion for  the  man  who  hopes  to  see  the  steam  and  electric 
railways  put  out  of  business  or  even  caused  to  run  at  a loss 
by  the  automobile,  motor  express  or  motor  bus.  Neither 
have  I any  plaudits  for  the  man  who  would  arrest  the 
growth  of  the  new  forms  of  transportation  by  drastic  legal 
enactments  and  excessive  taxation  in  order  to  preserve  the 
old.  I believe  there  is  room  and  need  in  the  United  States 
for  all  forms  of  transportation,  and  that  each  can  thrive 
in  its  respective  field  just  as  do  wheat  and  corn  but 
none  will  thrive  if  they  attempt  to  occupy  the  same  field 
at  the  same  time. 

The  text  is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts — the  devel- 
opment of  highways  and  their  use.  The  first  part  treats 
of  the  relation  of  transportation  to  civilization  generally, 
explaining  briefly  how  the  two  have  grown  together  like 
children  at  school,  how  each  has  helped  the  other,  and  how 
the  meter  of  one  is  the  measure  of  the  other. 

Leaving  the  old  world  there  is  sketched  all  too  briefly 
the  development  in  the  United  States  of  transportation 
facilities  from  the  coastal  and  natural  waterways,  from 
the  pack  and  trail,  used  by  the  aborigine  and  early  settlers, 
through  the  treks  of  the  pioneers,  the  periods  of  canal 
digging,  the  toll  road  competition,  and  the  railway  frenzy, 
to  the  advent  of  the  modern  road  with  the  coming  of  the 
bicycle  and  automobile  and  their  wonderful  accelerative 
impulse. 

The  effects  of  State  and  Federal  aid  upon  the  road  condi- 
tions of  the  country  are  fully  treated  as  is  also  the  planning 
of  highway  systems. 

Automotive  transportation  for  business  and  pleasure  in- 
cluding rural  motor  express  and  bus  lines,  and  their  effect 
on  production  and  marketing  are  described  and  discussed. 


Preface 


Vll 


In  the  chapters  on  highway  accidents  and  highway  aids 
to  traffic,  attention  is  called  to  many  types  of  accidents, 
including  railway  crossing  accidents,  with  suggestions  for 
their  mitigation.  Here  also  are  given  the  most  recent 
practical  rules  for  the  regulation  of  traffic  in  both  city  and 
country. 

A chapter  is  devoted  to  the  esthetics  of  the  highway,  a 
subject  just  coming  to  the  attention  of  road  men  who  have 
heretofore  been  mostly  concerned  with  distances,  grades, 
widths  and  surfaces,  which,  by  the  way,  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  text.  As  in  all  building  construction  the 
first  appeal  was  made  to  material  things  and  their  relation 
to  the  pocket-book,  while  the  last  and  most  enduring  appeal 
is  spiritualistic  and  is  made  to  the  pleasures  of  the  imagina- 
tion. 

The  same  idea  of  making  the  road  a means  of  catering 
to  the  preservative  and  pleasure  instincts  of  man  is  con- 
sidered in  the  final  chapter  on  aids  and  attractions  to  traffic 
and  travel.  Safety  and  warning  devices  are  discussed  as 
such,  while  comforts  and  conveniences  are  means  for  luring 
the  average  citizen  to  the  highway,  to  the  camps  and  parks, 
for  the  broadening  effect  upon  his  character,  the  health  of 
his  body,  and  the  enlightenment  of  his  soul. 

Thus  we  close  a most  hurried  journey  from  the  very 
beginning  of  roads  to  their  modern  far  superior  yet  very 
imperfect  attainments.  The  main  thought  throughout  has 
been  the  road  as  a usable  agency  in  the  economic  and  en- 
tertaining phases  of  life.  Each  equally  important  to  the 
wealth,  health,  and  happiness  of  our  people.  The  mind 
easily  travels  ahead  to  a time  when  separate  roads  will  be 
devoted  to  the  two  great  ends  of  business  and  pleasure. 
Then  the  flight  of  fancy  passes  on  to  still  another  period  of 
time  and  sees  the  highways  made  inoperative  and  super- 
fluous, overgrown  by  weeds  and  grass,  for  the  argosies  of 
business  and  pleasure  have  taken  to  the  air. 

George  Richard  Chatburn. 

Lincoln,  Nebraska 
March  9,  1923. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  1 

Stages  of  Civilization:  Direct  Appropriation;  Pastoral; 
Agricultural — Manorial  and  Feudal  Systems;  Handicraft 
— Merchant  Guilds,  Effect  upon  Trade,  Domestic  System, 
Government  Control,  Agriculture;  Industrial — Building 
of  Canals,  Smelting  Iron,  Invention  of  Steam  Engine, 
Railways  Developed.  Some  Historical  Roads  and  their 
Influence:  Early  Highways  — Asiatic,  Greek,  Roman, 
Pre-Historic  American. 


CHAPTER  II 

Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States: 
Early  Trails  and  Roads 34 

First  Settlements  near  Coast.  Birch  Bark  Canoe,  Meager- 
ness of  Roads.  Settlement  follows  Waterways.  Portages. 
Lines  of  Travel — Through  Alleghanies,  from  the  North, 
Boone’s  Trace  or  the  Wilderness  Road,  Calk’s  Diary. 
Explorations — Marquette,  Lewis  and  Clark,  Fur  Com- 
panies. Western  Trails — Oregon,  Salt  Lake,  Later  Cali- 
fornia, Santa  F6,  Gila  and  Spanish.  Turnpike  Roads, 
Wagon  Road  Neglect,  National  Participation — Cumber- 
land Road.  Early  Inns.. 


CHAPTER  III 

Waterways  and  Canals 70 

Coastal,  Inlets,  Rivers,  Creeks.  Canals — Europe,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Other  States;  Passenger  Traffic 
on;  Prosperity  and  Desuetude.  Ship  Canals:  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  Cape  Cod,  Panama — Inducements  for,  Early 
Schemes,  Routes — Tehauntepec,  Nicaragua,  Others; 
French  Participation — DeLesseps’  Grant,  Company 
Organized;  Other  Promotion  Schemes;  Indignation  in  the 


IX 


X 


Contents 


PAGE 

United  States  against  Foreign  Building  Canal;  DeLes- 
seps  begins  Work;  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty;  Hay  and 
Pauncefote  Treaty;  Commission  Reports  Favorably  on 
Nicaraguan  Route;  French  Company  Bankrupt;  Colom- 
bian Congress  Refuses  to  Sell  to  the  United  States  Control 
of  the  Canal  Strip;  Panamanian  Revolution — Roosevelt’s 
Part  in  Revolution;  United  States  Secures  Control  of 
Canal  Strip,  Colombia  Protests;  Construction  of  Canal 
Begun;  Description  of  Canal,  Canal  Traffic.  River  Trans- 
portation: Small  Boats,  Pole  Boats,  Large  Boats,  Rafts. 
Steamboat:  Construction,  Mississippi  River  Traffic,  New 
Orleans  Levee,  Mississippi  Steamboats  and  Steamboating; 
Steamboat  Fares.  Government  Attitude  toward  River 
Improvement.  John  Fitch  Granted  a Right  in  New 
Jersey;  Calhoun’s  Activities,  Monroe’s  Attitude.  National 
Aid  for  Internal  Improvements. 


CHAPTER  IV 


Railroads 99 

Origin  and  Early  Development.  Optimism  of  Promoters. 
Early  Locomotives.  First  Chartered  Railroad— Charles- 
ton and  Hamburg,  First  Passenger  Car  on  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  New  York  Central,  Camden  and  Amboy,  New  Eng- 
land Roads,  West  of  Alleghanies,  in  the  South.  Rapid 
Growth  in  Railway  Mileage.  Call  for  Government  Aid. 
Land  Grants.  Pacific  Roads — Congressional  Discussion, 
Compromise  Bills,  Construction  of  Pacific  Roads,  Credit 
Mobilier.  Era  of  Raihvay  Consolidation — Typical  Con- 
solidations, Methods  of  Consolidating.  Mechanical  Devel- 
opment: Rails,  Freight  Cars,  Locomotives,  Gauge,  Tele- 
graph, Signals.  The  Evolution  of  the  Sleeping  Car.  Street 
Car  Service.  Electric  Traction — Origin,  Development. 


CHAPTER  V 

The  Modern  W’agon  Road 126 

Neglect  and  Desuetude  of  Wagon  Roads,  1830-1890.  Lay- 
ing out  and  Working  Roads,  Statutory  Width  of  Roads. 
Influence  of  Bicycle  for  Better  Roads:  Origin  of  Bicycle, 
Development,  Ordinary,  Safety,  Cycling  Boom,  Organiza- 
tion of  Wheel  Clubs,  Propaganda  for  Good  Roads,  Prev- 
alence of  Poor  Roads,  Comments  by  Writers.  Good 


Contents 


xi 


PAGE 

Roads  Associations;  League  of  American  Wheelmen, 
National  Highway  Commission,  Col.  Pope’s  Propaganda, 

Bills  Introduced  in  Congress.  Office  of  Public  Roads 
Inquiry:  Duties  and  Limitations,  Cooperation  with  Good 
Roads  Organizations,  National  Good  Roads  Associa- 
tion— Good  Roads  Trains,  Object  Lesson  Roads,  Policy 
Discontinued,  Duties  and  Scope  of  Office  of  Public  Roads 
Widened  and  Name  Changed — Educational  Work,  Re- 
search, Administration  of  Federal  Aid.  Rural  Free 
Delivery  of  Mail:  Origin,  Development,  Advantages. 
State  Aid:  Origin — New  Jersey,  Salient  Features,  Dif- 
ficulties of  Getting  it  Enacted;  Massachusetts;  Other 
States;  State  Bonds  for  State  Aid.  Federal  Aid;  Enact- 
ment of  Law,  Provisions,  Appropriation,  Administration, 
Additional  Appropriations. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Interrelation  between  Highway  and  Other  Kinds  of 
Transportation 159 

Classification  of  Transportation.  Railroads  have  not 
always  Acted  Honorably.  Quantity  Production  and  Divi- 
sion of  Labor  Applied  to  Railway  Transportation,  to 
Motor  Transport.  Automobiles  Cutting  into  Railway 
Earnings,  Babson’s  Prediction.  Effect  of  Motor  Com- 
petition on  Interurban  Trolley  Lines,  on  Street  Car  Lines, 
Taxicabs  and  Jitneys,  Buses,  Trackless  Trolleys.  Guar- 
anteeing Earnings  of  Street  Car  Companies,  Legitimate 
Fields  of  Transportation  Agencies.  Length  of  Haul  for 
Economic  Trucldng.  Reduction  of  Rates  and  Expenses. 
Carving  out  New  Fields.  Still  Room  for  all  Kinds  of 
Transportation. 

CHAPTER  VII 

Automotive  Transportation 181 

Defined,  Radical  Changes  to  be  Expected.  Business  Pas- 
senger Traffic:  Jitney  and  Taxicab,  Motor  Bus — Qualifi- 
cations, Fares,  Competition  with  Street  Cars,  Cross-coun- 
try Service,  Carriers  of  School  Children,  Transfer  between 
Depots.  Pleasure  Passenger  Traffic:  An  Influence  in  the 
Purchase  of  Automobiles,  Pleasurable  Effect  of  Automo- 
bile Riding,  Recreational  and  Pathological  Benefits  of 
Motoring,  Cost  of  Motoring.  Freight  Traffic:  Cost  and 


Xll 


Contents 


PAGE 

Time  Factors,  Motor  Trucks  and  Congested  Districts. 
Time  Devoted  to  Loading  and  Unloading,  Depots,  Ware- 
houses, Devices,  Removable  Bodies,  Sectional  Containers, 
Store  to  Door  Delivery,  Mass  Loading.  Devices  Con- 
nected with  the  Truck.  Devices  Separate,  Special  Types 
of  Bodies.  Traffic  between  Towns:  Economic  Distance, 
Licenses  and  Insurance,  State  Regulation  without  Com- 
petition, Development  of  State  Regulation.  Motor  Bus 
Traffic:  Buses,  Rates,  Future  of  Motor  Bus  and  Other 
Types  of  Transportation.  To  and  from  the  Farm:  Impor- 
tance of  Farm  Trucking,  Arguments  in  Favor  of,  Cost  of 
Trucking,  Diversified  Farming,  Intensive  Farming,  Live 
Stock.  Trucking,  Benefits  to  the  Farmer,  Economy  of 
Farm  Trucking,  Parcel  Post  Service  and  the  Farm,  Rural 
Express,  Milk  Trucks,  Convenience  to  the  Farmer,  Pur- 
chasing a Truck.  Terminal  Facilities:  Advantages.  Social 
Aspect  of  Motor  Transportation:  Effect  on  Merchan- 
dising, Housing,  Unification  of  Society,  Standard  of  Lining, 

Size  of  Farms,  Salesmen,  Hotels,  City  and  County  Stores. 
Consolidated  Rural  Schools:  The  Public  School  and 
Patriotism,  Peace,  Changing  Concepts  of  Public  Schools. 
Rural  Mail  Delivery.  Automobile  and  Health : As  a Form 
of  Exercise,  Effect  on  Styles;  Medical  Science;  Sanitary 
Effects — Mosquitoes,  Flies.  The  Automobile  and  Crime: 
Bootlegging,  Robbery,  Vandalism.  Types  of  Automobile 
Transportation. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Planning  Highway  Systems:  Selection  of  Road  Types  . 222 

Object  of  a Road.  Road  Classification:  Agricultural. 

Recreational,  Commercial,  Military.  Problem  of  the 
Road  Planner:  Economy,  Accommodation,  Utilizing 

Existing  Roads.  Essentials  to  be  Considered:  Ruling 
Points,  Branch  Lines  and  Detours,  Alternate  Routes, 
Existing  Highways  and  City  Streets,  Vested  Rights, 
Widening  Roads  and  Streets,  Railroads,  Trolley  Lines, 
etc.,  Bridges,  Culverts,  Drainage,  etc.,  Ruling  Grades, 
Esthetics.  Motor  Transport  Efficiency  Outline,  High- 
way System  Unit:  Arguments  in  Favor  of  National  Sys- 
tem— Eliminates  Sectional  Differences,  Gives  Continuous 
Roads,  Military  Roads,  Benefits  of  Example.  State 
Systems — Benefits.  Procedure  of  Laying  out  a Road 
System:  Commission,  Determining  Factors,  Maps,  Tenta- 
tive System,  Reconnaisance  Survey — What  Shown,  How 


Contents 


xm 


PAGE 

Taken,  Instruments;  Hearings — Object;  Final  Location — 
Considerations,  Traffic  Census  Advisable.  Financial  Con- 
siderations: First  Cost,  Upkeep,  Traffic  Census:  Affects 
Location,  Type  of  Road,  Grades,  Width,  Foundations. 
Making  a Traffic  Census:  Variation  of  Traffic — Number 
of  Counting  Days,  Hours  Each  Day,  Weights,  Observer’s 
Cards,  Both  Way  Count,  Weather,  Stations — Location  of. 
Classification  of  Traffic:  Object,  Maximum  Loads,  Effect 
of  Heavy  Loads,  Influence  Units  of  Traffic — British, 
French,  Other  Countries,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Borough  of  Brooklyn;  Suggested  Form  of  Traffic  Sheet — 
New  Jersey.  Destructive  Factors:  Density  of  Traffic, 
Weight  of  Vehicles,  Impact,  Speed,  Wrinkling,  Sprung 
and  Unsprung  Weight,  Tires,  Pleasure  Cars  and  Light 
Traffic  to  be  Considered.  Other  Methods  of  Estimating 
the  Amount  of  Traffic:  Area  Served,  Tonnage  Arising. 
Distribution  of  Traffic  over  Township  Roads.  Selection 
of  a Suitable  Type  of  Road.  Taxpayers  Allowed  to 
Assist  in  Selection,  Engineers  to  Suggest.  Ideal  Road: 
Qualities  of — Low  First  Cost,  Durability — Materials  and 
Design,  Resistance  to  Traction  and  Tractive  Force — 
Horse,  Truck,  Speed,  Temperature,  Roughness,  Width  of 
Tire,  Diameter  of  Wheel,  Table  of  Resistances;  Resistance 
Due  to  Grade — Formulas,  Coefficient,  Available  Engine 
Effort;  Slipperiness — Type  of  Pavement,  Climatic  Con- 
ditions;! Sanitariness — Definition,  Effect  of  Type  of  Road; 
Noisiness;  Acceptability.  Some  Types  of  Roads  and 
their  Qualities:  Earth,  Sand-clay,  Gravel,  Macadam, 

Bituminous  Macadam,  Bituminous  Concrete,  Brick,  Con- 
crete, Creosoted  Wood  Block,  Asphalt  Block,  Sheet 
Asphalt,  Other  Types.  Comparison  of  Roads — Specimen 
Tables. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  on  Pro- 
duction and  Marketing 273 

Production  Defined,  Productive  Activities — Change  of 
Form,  Change  of  Place,  Change  of  Time.  Nature  and 
Labor.  Capital — Stored  up  Labor.  Marketing — Whole- 
saling and  Retailing.  Grain  Exchanges;  Defined,  Object, 
Commission  Merchant,  Dealing  in  Futures — Hedging. 
Cooperative  Marketing:  Advantages.  Local  Grain  Mer- 
chant— Financing  Movement  of  Crops.  Elements  Enter- 
ing into  the  Cost  of  Marketing.  Transportation  from 


XIV 


Contents 


PAGE 

Farm  to  Local  Market.  Cost  of  Production,  Effect  of 
Good  Roads  upon,  Intensive  Farming,  Fruit  Farming, 
Long  Haul  Transportation . Stock  Marketing:  Changing 
Character  of  Stock  Raising,  Distance  of  Economic  Hauling 
by  Team  and  by  Truck,  Effect  of  Truck  Hauling  on 
Number  of  Hogs  Marketed.  Seasonal  Effect.  Stock 
Merchant — Local,  Shrinkage,  Dairying.  Poultry.  For- 
estry: Logging  and  Lumbering,  Forest  Management,  Use 
of  Truck  and  Trailer,  At  Saw  Mill,  Log  Loader,  in  Lum- 
ber Yards,  Mining.  Factory  Products.  From  Factory 
to  Retailer.  Terminal  Charges  Eliminated.  Construc- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  X 

Financing  Highways  and  Highway  Transportation 
Lines 306 

Origin  and  Reasons  for  Road  Work.  Working  out  Road 
Tax  Abolished.  Private  Financing,  Public  Financing. 
Taxation:  Tax  Defined,  Classified.  Direct  Taxes— 

Levied  Uniformly.  Indirect  Taxes:  Defined,  Classes  of, 
Special  Taxes,  How  Levied,  Benefits  Decrease  with  Dis- 
tance, Petitioning  Influence—^ Curve  of,  Concrete  Illustra- 
tion. Zone  Weights:  How  Determined,  Plots  and  Tables. 
Frontage:  Defined,  Calculation,  Illustrative  Example. 
Unequal  Zones  and  Irregular  Lots — Concrete  Illustra- 
tion. Another  Method  of  Apportioning  Assessments. 
Rule  for  Assessment.  Miscellaneous  Sources  of  Revenue: 
Public  Sendee  Corporations,  Bus  and  Truck  Lines, 
Municipal  Sale  of  Water,  Gas,  Electricity,  Ice,  Coal. 
Public  Ownership  of  Transportation  and  other  Necessary 
Utilities.  Bonds:  Sinking  Fund,  Serial,  Annuity,  Com- 
parison of  Costs.  Term  of  Bonds.  Stocks  and  Bonds. 
National  and  State  Aid.  Present  Status  of  Federal  Aid. 
Matching  Federal  Aid  Dollars.  Financing  Highway 
Transportation:  Individual,  Partnership,  Corporation. 

Public  Ownership — When  Advisable. 

CHAPTER  XI 

Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  ....  351 

Accidents  Result  of  Disorder,  Codes  to  Prevent,  Automobile 
Accidents  Lead  in  Number.  Causes:  The  Driver — Men- 
tally or  Physically  Unfit,  Ignorant,  Indifferent,  Reckless; 
Driving  and  Operating:  Recklessness.  Speeding,  Around 
Sharp  Turns,  Passing  Cars.  Homs.  Stopping  Cars  on 


Contents 


xv 


PAGE 

Grades,  in  Streets,  etc.,  Backing.  Other  Forms  of  Care- 
lessness. The  Car:  Skidding,  Brakes,  Flexibility,  Steering 
and  Turning  Ability,  Lights,  Unlighted  Vehicles,  Speed- 
ometer. Bad  Roads:  Slipperiness — High  Crowns,  Em- 
bankments and  Guard  Rails,  Super-elevation — Rule  for, 
Clear  Vision,  Curves,  Bridges  and  Culverts.  Railway 
Crossing  Accidents:  Prevalency,  Elimination  of  Cross- 
ings— Cost,  Automobile  Drivers  Careless — Observations, 
Methods  of  Mitigation;  Bridge  Clearance.  Pedestrians — 
Jay-walkers,  Obstacles  that  Obscure  Vision,  Pedestrians 
on  Country  Roads,  Slow  Going  Vehicles,  Bicycles.  Road 
and  Traffic  Regulations:  Development  of,  Council  of 
National  Defense  Code,  Education  Necessary, 


CHAPTER  XII 

Highway  Esthetics 382 

Indispensable  Elements  of  Architecture — Stability,  Utility, 
Beauty.  Esthetic  Sense— Applied  to  Roads,  to  Land- 
scape Gardening.  Styles — Natural  and  Formal.  Appli- 
cation to  Roads.  Varieties  of  Road  and  Street  Trees — 
List;  Shrubs — -List;  Climbers — List.  Semi-formal  Style. 
Telephone  and  other  Poles,  the  Ideal  Section,  Legisla- 
tion Necessary.  Local  Conditions  Determine  Planting. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

Ads  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  . . . 418 

Pleasure  Riding — Extent,  Advantages  to  a Community  to 
Have  Tourists  Pass  through,  Ranking  and  Parking, 
Parking  Spaces  a Convenience  to  Motorists — Space  for  and 
Angle  of  Parking,  Location  of  Parking  Spaces,  One  Way 
and  Rotary  Traffic,  Opera  House  Traffic,  Public  Garages — 
Several  Story  Garages.  Terminal  Stations — Omaha,  Pough- 
keepsie, Elsewhere.  Gas,  Air  and  Water  Stations,  Named 
and  Numbered  Roads;  Marks,  Signs  and  Guides— Distance 
and  Direction  Signs,  Letters  and  Colors,  Warning  Signs, 

Map  Signs,  Detour  Signs,  Location  of  Detour  Markers, 
Dummy  Cop,  Semaphores,  Signal  Lights  and  Colors,  Road 
and  Street  Lighting,  City  Traffic  Lighting,  Traffic  Officer, 
Semaphore  and  Towers.  Touring:  Prevalency  and  Pleasures 
of,  Camping — Grounds,  Caravans,  and  Equipment.  Camp 
Sites,  Hotels,  Parks,  Information  Bureaus  and  Agencies. 

Index 465 


LIST  OF  INSERTS 


Storm  King  Highway Frontispiece 

A Great  Engineering  Project  Along  the  Hudson  between 
Cornwall  and  West  Point,  N.  Y. 

PAGE 

The  Appian  Way 22 

Showing  the  original  Paving  Stones  laid  300  b.c. 

Map  of  Italy 24 

Showing  Some  of  the  Twenty  or  More  Roads  that  Radi- 
ated from  Rome. 


Map  of  Roman  Roads  in  England 26 

(After  Jackman:  “Development  of  Transportation  in 

Modern  England.”) 

Map  of  the  North-Eastern  Portion  of  the  United 
States 36 


Showing  the  Location  of  Well-known  Portages.  There 
Were  Other  Portages  Wherever  Two  Water  Courses 
Came  Near  to  Each  Other.  (See  Farrand:  “American 
Nation,”  Vol.  I,  and  Thwaites,  lb.  Yol.  VII.) 

Map  42 

Showing  Main  Highways  and  Waterways  in  the  United 
States  about  1830.  When  the  Railroads  Entered  the 
Industrial  Arena,  the  Country  Was  Being  Covered  With 
a Net  Work  of  Highways.  (Based  on  Tanner’s  Map 
of  1825  and  Turner  in  “American  Nation,”  Yol.  XIV.) 

Map 54 

Showing  Transcontinental  Trails  in  the  United  States. 

Way  Bill 66 

Used  on  the  Slaymaker  Stage  Line  from  Lancaster  to 
Philadelphia,  1815.  (Courtesy  of  Prof.  P.  K.  Slay- 
maker,  Lincoln,  Nebr.) 

The  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  .......  76 

xvii 


XV111 


List  of  Inserts 


PAGE 

The  Evolution  op  the  Railway  Train 102 

1.  The  First  Railway  Coach — 1825. 

2.  Horse  Power  Locomotive — 1829-30. 

3.  Stourbridge  Lion — 1829. 

4.  Stevenson’s  Rocket  Locomotive — 1829. 

5.  The  DeWitt  Clinton  Locomotive — 1831. 

(From  Brown’s  “First  Locomotive” — Courtesy  of  D. 
Appleton  & Company.) 

Modern  Locomotives 120 

1.  Showing  the  Growth  in  the  Size  of  Locomotives  Dur- 
ing the  Past  Twenty  Years.  The  Smaller  Locomotive 
is  an  American  Type  Class  Engine  of  1900.  The 
Larger  is  a Mountain  Type  Engine.  Both  are  Used 
on  the  C.  B.  & Q.  R.  R.  Photographed  at  Lincoln, 
Nebr.,  Sept.,  1922. 

2.  One  of  the  New  Gearless  Electric  Locomotives  Built 
by  the  General  Electric  Company  for  the  C.  M.  & St. 

Paul  R.  R. 

Transportation  Across  Death  Valley 126 

A Picturesque  Method  of  Earlier  Days. 

Good  Roads  Day  in  Jackson  County,  Mo 132 

Chart  op  the  Organization  op  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering,  1917  . . 142 

Hard  Surface  Highway  in  Oregon 146 

A Farmer’s  Wipe  Meeting  the  Postal  Truck  . . . 146 

Trackless  Trolley  Operated  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  . 166 

Motor  or  Rail-Car 166 

Showing  the  Gasoline  Locomotive  and  Trailer,  Operated 
by  the  Chicago  & Great  Western  R.  R. 

The  Evolution  op  the  Steam  Automobile  ....  182 

1.  The  Cugnot  Steam  Carriage— 1770. 

2.  The  Trevithick  & Vivian  Steam  Carriage — 1801. 

3.  The  Gurney  Steam  Carriage — 1827. 

4.  The  Church  Automobile  Carriage  (Steam) — 1833. 

5.  Gaillardit’s  Steam  Carriage — 1894. 

(Courtesy  of  the  Scientific  American.) 

A Modern  Rural  Passenger  Bus 


. 184 


List  of  Inserts 


XIX 


PAGE 

A New  York  City  “Stepless”  Bus 184 

It  Has  an  Emergency  Door,  with  Wire  Window  Guards, 
and  will  Seat  30  Persons. 

The  Evolution  op  the  Gasoline  Motor  Car  . . . 188 

1.  Panhard  & Levassor  Carriage — 1895. 

2.  Duryea  Motor  Wagon — 1895. 

3.  The  Benz  Motocycle. 

4.  Hertel’s  Gasoline  Carriage — 1896. 

5.  The  Olds  Horseless  Carriage. 

6.  Winton’s  Racing  Machine. 

(Courtesy  of  the  Scientific  American.) 

Hauling  Beans  by  Motor  Truck  and  Trailer  . . . 200 

Sacramento  Valley,  Calif. 

Hauling  Sugar  Beets  to  Market  in  a Motor  Truck  . . 200 

Traffic  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  ....  234 

Giving  a Macadam  Road  an  Application  of  Tarvia  Binder  254 
This  is  Followed  by  a Coat  of  Screenings  and  then  the 
Road  is  Rolled  Again. 

A Road  of  Miked  Asphalt  and  Concrete  Being  Tested 
Out 254 

Crowning  a Dirt  Road  in  California  with  Tractor 
Drawn  Grader 263 

A.  Milk  Truck  Equipped  with  both  Cans  and  Tank  . . 296 

A Lumber  Log  Truck  Used  in  the  Northwest  . . . 296 

A National  Highway  in  the  Mountains  of  Maryland  . 332 

A Dangerous  Curve  Made  Safe  by  an  Artistic  Concrete 

Wall 364 

The  Tennessee  State  Highway  at  Lookout  Mountain,  Built 
of  Cemented  Concrete. 

Pin  Oak  Street  Trees 388 

About  15  Years  Old  on  Land  that  Was  Once  Considered 
to  be  a part  of  the  “Great  American  Desert.” 

A Cottonwood  Wind  Break 388 

Formerly  very  Common  in  the  Prairie  Region. 

Warning  and  Direction  Signs  Used  in  the  State  of 
Illinois 434 


XX 


List  of  Inserts 


PAGE 

Traffic  Guides 442 

(From  Eno’s  “The  Science  of  Highway  Traffic  Regula- 
tion.”) 

New  York  City  Traffic  Guides 444 

In  November,  1903,  one  hundred  blue  and  white  enameled 
signs,  directing  slow-moving  vehicles  to  keep  near  the 
right-hand  curb,  were  put  in  use  in  New  York.  These 
were  probably  the  first  traffic  regulation  signs  ever 
used.” 

(From  Eno’s  “The  Science  of  Highway  Traffic  Regula- 
tion.”) 

Traffic  Tower  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  . . 446 


Camping  Ground  and  Caravan 458 

A Gipsying  Touring  Caravan 458 


HIGHWAYS  AND  HIGHWAY 
TRANSPORTATION 


CHAPTER  I 

TRANSPORTATION  A MEASURE  OF  CIVILIZATION 

As  the  several  peoples  inhabiting  the  earth  have  pro- 
gressed from  barbarism  through  the  different  stages  of 
civilization,  the  transportation  occasioned  by  their  wants 
and  desires  has  kept  a close  pace.  By  a study  of  the  trans- 
portation— travel,  movement  of  goods  and  commodities — 
and  the  means  and  facilities  for  its  accomplishment,  the 
relative  civilization  of  any  people,  their  rank  and  position 
may  be  accurately  surveyed,  graduated,  and  estimated. 
The  highways  of  a nation,  whether  they  be  of  the  land  or 
sea,  or  both,  are  most  vital  elements  in  its  progress  and 
could  almost  as  well  as  transportation  be  considered  the 
measuring  rod  of  civilization. 

Stages  in  Civilization. — Sociologists  differ  as  to  what 
constitute  the  several  stages  of  civilization.  One  might 
trace  the  development  of  man  through  literature,  another 
through  art,  another  through  government;  others  con- 
sider his  economic  activities  the  more  fundamental  fac- 
tors. The  most  widely  used  economic  classification, 
according  to  Ely,1  is  based  upon  the  increasing  power  of 
man  over  nature  and  consists  of  (1)  Direct  Appropria- 

1 ‘ ‘ Outlines  of  Economics,  ’ ’ by  Richard  T.  Ely.  The  Macmillan 

Co.,  N.  Y. 


2 Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

tion,  (2)  The  Pastoral  Stage,  (3)  The  Agricultural  Stage, 
(4)  The  Handicraft  Stage,  and  (5)  The  Industrial  Stage. 
These  stages  are  well  illustrated  in  English  history.  The 
stage  of  direct  appropriation  corresponding  to  the  pre- 
historic period  and  up  to  54  b.c.,  when  the  Romans  over- 
ran the  island  of  Britain;  the  Pastoral  stage  from  this 
time  to  the  invasion  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1066 ; the 
Agricultural  up  to  about  the  discovery  of  America,  when 
a great  impetus  was  given  to  travel  and  discovery;  the 
stage  of  Handicraft,  from  1500  to  the  invention  of  the 
steam  engine  and  its  application  to  manufacture  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  eighteenth  century ; the  Industrial  stage,  to 
the  present  time.  While  these  stages  necessarily  overlap 
each  other  considerably,  it  will  be  seen  that  as  one  declines 
the  next  is  ushered  in  with  some  radical  change  in  govern- 
ment or  in  economic  or  industrial  condition.  The  present  day 
— immediately  following  as  it  does  the  Great  World  War, 
out  of  which  have  issued  many  scientific  discoveries  and  in- 
ventions, notably  those  advancing  the  theory  and  practice  of 
air  navigation,  with  many  potential  possibilities  in  new 
lines  of  transportation ; and  the  setting  forth  of  an  idea 
which  is  capable  of  leading  to  a better  understanding  or 
even  a confederation  of  nations  and  altering  all  forms  of 
national  government — may  be  the  beginning  of  a new  stage 
of  civilization. 

Stage  of  Direct  Appropriation. — This  stage  covers  the 
whole  course  of  prehistoric  man  from  the  time  the  first  ape 
stood  erect  some  500,000  years  ago 2 through  the  stone, 
bronze,  and  iron  ages  to  the  age  of  literature  and  art. 
During  these  long  years  civilization  traveled  far,  for  the 
least  cultured  savages  observed  have  advanced  not  only 
away  beyond  the  highest  of  the  lower  animals  but  also 
beyond  the  lowest  intellectual  estate  of  which  human  beings 
may  be  supposed  capable  of  subsisting.  And  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  of  these  tribes  are  shown  traits  vary- 
ing as  greatly  in  degree  as  from  one  stage  in  the  above 
classification  to  another.  The  Indians  at  the  time  of  the 
3 See  “The  Man  of  the  Stone  Age,”  by  H.  F.  Osborne. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  3 

discovery  of  America  and  the  three  centuries  following, 
and  many  of  the  tribes  of  Africa  during  the  explorations  of 
Livingstone  and  Stanley,  were  and  still  are  in  this  stage 
and  hence  have  been  subjected  to  scientific  study  and  in- 
vestigation. Their  governments  while  variable  are  of  the 
primitive  types.  Ordinarily  a chief  autocratically  rules  be- 
cause of  hereditary  influence.  Little  is  manufactured, 
planting  is  scarcely  known;  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  col- 
lecting nature’s  products  of  wild  seeds  and  roots  is  a sub- 
sistence obtained  often  with  long,  arduous,  and  dangerous 
labor.  Efficiency,  as  we  understand  that  term  to-day,  is 
very  low,  and  the  number  of  persons  that  a given  area 
can  support  is  few.  No  one  can  predict  but  what  to- 
morrow he  may  have  to  go  hungry  or  suffer  cold  from  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather,  for  his  store  of  food  is  nil  or 
small,  his  shelter  rudimentary  and  clothing  scanty.  Note 
the  hardships  of  the  party  of  Henry  M.  Stanley  during 
his  expedition  across  the  African  wilderness  in  quest  of 
Emin  Pasha. 3 Notwithstanding  Stanley’s  men  were 
possessed  of  firearms  and  edged  tools  and  carried  some  pro- 
visions with  them,  and  were  traversing  a country  teeming 
with  vegetable  and  animal  life,  many  times  they  were  on 
the  verge  of  starvation.  The  number  of  the  natives  in  these 
wildernesses  are  no  doubt  kept  low  because  of  the  extreme 
difficulties  of  procuring  the  necessities  of  life. 

The  barbarian  requires  less,  of  course,  than  the  civilized 
man ; he  is  satisfied  with  mere  subsistence.  He  is  improvi- 
dent and  relies  upon  picking  up  his  needs  from  day  to  day 
as  a robin  picks  worms  from  the  grass.  Cannibalism  often 
exists,  for  the  sacredness  of  human  life  has  not  yet  been 
established,  although  magic  and  crude  religious  rites  arc 
seldom  missing.  While  private  personal  property  is  recog- 
nized and  retained  by  personal  prowess,  the  ownership 
of  land  is  absent.  Cooperation  of  the  crudest  sort  only  is 
found;  division  of  labor  consists  largely  in  having  the 
females  perform  the  work  of  planting,  cultivating,  carry- 

8“In  Darkest  Africa”  (two  volumes),  by  Henry  M.  Stanley. 
Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York. 


4 Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

mg  burdens — when  these  are  attempted  at  all — cooking  and 
caring  for  the  children  in  the  crudest  fashion,  leaving  to  the 
men  the  work  of  hunting,  fishing,  and  fighting.  Each  tribe 
is  self-sufficient  and  consists  of  a chief  with  a few  followers 
bound  together  loosely  for  the  purposes  of  protection  from 
other  tribes.  Exchange,  barter,  and  trade  is  at  its  lowest 
ebb ; consequently  transportation  is  practically  unnecessary, 
and  roadways  except  mere  trails  do  not  exist. 

The  Pastoral  Stage. — In  the  process  of  evolution  certain 
animals  undoubtedly  were  domesticated  and  used  for  food. 
Whether  or  not  this  domestication  preceded  or  followed 
primitive  agriculture  or  “hoe  culture,”  is  not  important, 
as  the  pastoral  stage  of  culture  evidently  lies  between  the 
hunting  and  the  farming  stages.  The  written  history  of 
mankind  indicates  that  this  stage  largely  prevailed  among 
the  earlier  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Teutonic  races.  A private 
ownership  in  cattle  and  herds  was  recognized,  but  the 
necessity  of  moving  about  with  the  flocks  precluded  fixed 
habitations,  although  large  areas  were  claimed  and  held  or 
endeavored  to  be  held  from  trespass  thereon  by  neighbor- 
ing tribes.  A given  area  would  thus  support  a much  larger 
number  of  people  than  in  the  preceding  stage.  A small 
amount  of  trading  or  bartering  was  carried  on  and  con- 
sequently some  transportation  was  required,  but  road 
building  as  such  was  little  known.  Rivers  and  coast  waters 
for  canoes  and  dugouts  were  no  doubt  early  taken  advan- 
tage of  by  the  aborigines  of  bordering  territories.  But 
since  there  is  so  little  division  of  labor,  so  little  of  barter 
and  exchange,  commerce  was  not  developed  much  during 
this  stage. 

The  Agricultural  Stage. — The  growing  and  storage  of 
crops,  increased  by  the  use  of  animal  power,  greatly 
changed  the  economic  and  social  conditions  of  man.  It  made 
possible  and  profitable  the  living  in  fixed  habitations,  even 
in  communities,  and  this  brought  out  the  needs  of  rules  of 
government.  But  even  yet  each  family  provided  without 
the  assistance  of  others  for  practically  all  its  own  needs. 
In  planting,  reaping,  threshing,  grinding  the  meal  and 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  5 

cooking,  the  family  became  the  unit.  No  great  division  of 
labor  was  yet  evident,  consequently  exchange,  barter,  and 
transportation  still  remained  low.  Ownership  of  land  was 
necessary  if  a family  was  to  cultivate  the  same  land  year 
after  year.  This  meant  definite  rules  and  laws  and  conse- 
quently the  development  of  governments.  Ownership  of 
herds  and  land  brought  wealth  and  a certain  distinction  in 
the  community.  Slavery,  which  had  no  doubt  existed  to 
some  extent  in  the  pastoral  stage,  here,  because  it  greatly 
increased  wealth,  grew  immensely.  Large  families  likewise 
meant  more  workmen  and  greater  wealth,  distinction,  and 
leisure,  hence  polygamy  and  polyandry  often  existed.  As 
the  evolution  continued  there  was  a trend  toward  handi- 
craft and  the  division  of  labor;  the  products  of  one  place 
began  to  be  exchanged  for  the  products  of  other  places. 
This  necessitated  some  forms  of  transportation,  meager 
though  they  might  be,  and  trails  between  communities. 

The  Manorial  and  Feudal  Systems. — In  England  and 
on  the  continent  during  the  later  years  of  this  stage  there 
were  developed  the  manorial  or  feudal  forms  of  govern- 
ment. The  people  lived  largely  in  villages  each  controlled 
by  a lord  or  earl  (eorl)  and  to  whom  in  return  for  his  pro- 
tection, the  use  of  land,  and  other  favors,  they  were  bound 
to  return  to  him  service  in  the  cultivation  of  his  land  and 
in  waging  war  when  called  upon  to  do  so.  The  lords  in 
turn  held  their  allegiance  to  the  king.  Some  handicrafts- 
men were  among  the  retainers  but  they  were  so  few  that 
they  did  not  form  an  important  part  of  the  village,  neither 
was  there  a great  deal  of  travel  or  transportation.  The 
manor  instead  of  the  family  was  the  unit,  and  it  was  almost 
self-sufficient.  The  land  was  allotted  in  small  tracts  and 
tilled  in  the  manner  designated  by  the  lord.  Each  person 
raised  barley,  oats,  peas,  and  lentils  sufficient  for  his  own 
needs.  Variation  in  crops  was  little  practiced.  Much  land 
at  distances  from  the  manor  was  still  devoted  to  herds  and 
flocks. 

However,  toward  the  later  part  of  this  stage,  the  feudal 
system  began  to  break  down.  There  were  more  free-holders 


6 Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

and  free-tenants,  living  upon  the  land  they  cultivated  ac- 
cording to  their  own  ideas.  Wheat,  rye,  flax,  and  root  crops 
were  assuming  greater  importance.  This  variety  in  farm- 
ing and  the  larger  fields  cultivated  by  the  individual 
naturally  increased  the  products  to  be  sold  or  exchanged 
and  hence  increased  transportation.  People  who  had  de- 
voted only  so  much  of  their  time  to  spinning  and  weaving 
as  was  necessary  to  supply  their  own  family  needs,  were 
beginning  to  do  more,  selling  the  excess  and  purchasing 
from  others  things  not  grown  or  manufactured  by  them- 
selves. Thus  were  developed  towns  as  centers  of  trade; 
money  as  a medium  of  exchange  assumed  greater  impor- 
tance; and  a division  of  labor  brought  into  being  and  in- 
creased the  social  standing  of  trades  and  professions.  Thus 
was  ushered  in  the  Handicraft  Stage  of  civilization. 

The  Handicraft  Stage. — In  England  this  stage  lasted 
through  approximately  five  centuries,  from  1200  to  1700. 
The  merging  of  one  period  into  another  came  about  so 
gradually  that  a definite  date  can  hardly  be  designated, 
and  the  time  is  so  long  that  undoubtedly  many  changes 
occurred  in  the  economic  activities  as  well  as  in  the  govern- 
ment and  literature  of  the  people. 

While  it  is  probable  that  merchants,  middlemen  who 
bought  from  one  person  and  sold  to  another,  had  thrived 
throughout  the  earlier  civilizations  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Europe,  and  even  extended  their  trade  to  Britain,  mer- 
chandising held  a comparatively  minor  position  in  England 
until  the  twelfth  century,  when  merchants  became  very 
prominent,  so  much  so  that  combinations  or  guilds  were 
formed  by  them  in  all  the  large  towns  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  and  controlling  the  conduct  of  business  and,  to 
some  extent,  of  maintaining  a monopolistic  control  of  the 
trade  in  their  particular  businesses.  A guild  was  an 
association  or  fraternity  of  persons  engaged  in  the  same 
line  of  business.  It  differed  from  a trade-union  in  that  the 
guild  was  an  association  of  masters  and  employees,  whereas 
the  trade-union  is  an  association  of  employees  only. 

Many  of  the  merchant  guilds  grew  wealthy  and  strong; 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  7 

they  obtained  Royal  Charters  from  the  Crown  either  by 
direct  payment  or  by  an  arrangement  to  pay  a special  tax, 
or  secured  recognition  in  the  borough  charters.  By  au- 
thority of  these  they  were  endowed  with  certain  privileges 
such  as:  (a)  limiting  the  number  of  their  own  members 
and  the  number  who  could  participate  in  any  line  of  mer- 
chandising; (b)  entering  into  secret  price  agreements  and 
trade  arrangements;  (c)  controlling  the  import  and  export 
of  wares;  (d)  the  establishing  of  a court  which  had  abso- 
lute jurisdiction  over  its  members  and  others  not  members 
engaged  in  the  same  line  of  business.  This  court  “could 
settle  trade  disputes,  discipline  its  apprentices  with  the 
whip  if  necessary,  could  imprison  its  journeymen  who 
struck  work,  and  could  fine  its  master  members  who  acted 
against  its  rules.  And,  finally,  the  members  of  the  com- 
pany were  forbidden  to  appeal  to  any  other  court  unless 
their  own  court  failed  to  obtain  justice  for  them.”  4 More- 
over, the  meeting  together  for  social  enjoyment,  feasting, 
and  worship ; the  helping  one  another  in  sickness  and 
poverty ; and  uniting  together  for  the  pursuit  of  some  com- 
mon cause,  naturally  brought  about  very  close  and  frater- 
nal relations. 

Craft-guilds. — Craftsmen  of  like  occupations  joined  to- 
gether in  guilds  also  and  they,  too,  became  not  only 
numerous  but  very  influential.  They  regulated  their  own 
internal  affairs  and  specified  how  many  apprentices  might 
be  entered,  and  under  what  circumstances  a man  might 
become  a journeyman  or  master  craftsman.  Numerous 
other  guilds,  social  and  religious,  were  extant  throughout 
Europe. 

Effect  upon  Trade. — The  merchant  guilds  and  the  craft- 
guilds  materially  affected  the  production  and  trade  of  the 
community  and  country.  The  merchants  of  Phoenicia  and 
later  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  said  to  have  visited  the 
British  Isles  to  secure  tin  and  copper.  The  great  merchant 
guilds  outfitted  adventures  to  the  ends  of  the  then  known 

4 “The  Romance  of  Commerce,”  by  H.  Gordon  Selfridge.  John 
Lane,  London. 


8 Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

world  to  secure  the  goods — whether  they  were  silks,  spices, 
furs  or  grain — in  which  they  dealt.  They  were  in- 
strumental in  the  passage  of  laws  encouraging  and  securing 
commerce.  They  themselves  regulated  the  quality  of  goods 
dealt  in.  For  example  the  Goldsmiths’  Guild  of  London 
required  that  all  silver  and  gold-plate  and  jewelry  manu- 
factured within  three  miles  of  London  should  be  brought 
to  the  guild  hall  for  inspection.  If  it  did  not  come  up  to 
the  specified  standard  it  was  ordered  remelted;  if  it  did  it 
received  the  “Hall  Mark”  that  anyone  purchasing  it  might 
be  assured  of  its  quality.  It  is  said  the  guilds  were  so 
punctilious  in  the  matter  of  quality  that  “Made  in  Eng- 
land” goods  received  in  the  markets  of  the  world  a stand- 
ing of  the  highest  rank;  a reputation  that  never  entirely 
disappeared,  and  as  a consequence  English  uprightness  of 
character  became  proverbial. 

The  Domestic  System. — All  this  made  necessary  the 
building  of  ships  and  harbors,  and  the  improvement  of  in- 
ternal highways  of  trade,  and  these  in  turn  stimulated 
manufacture  which  as  yet  was  carried  on  by  hand.  The 
family  instead  of  the  town  or  guild  became  the  unit ; ap- 
prentices were  entered  and  kept,  usually,  as  members  of 
the  family  and  worked  along  side  the  sons  and  daughters 
of  the  master.  As  these  grew  to  manhood  their  pay,  be- 
ginning with  mere  keep,  was  gradually  increased  with  their 
work  and  responsibility  until  at  the  end  of  seven  years  they 
were  fitted  to  go  forth  as  journeymen  and  later  themselves 
became  masters.  The  work  was  done  at  or  near  the 
master’s  home.  The  raw  material  was  usually  received 
from  a middleman,  to  whom  was  returned  the  finished  pro- 
duct ; the  middleman  disposed  of  it  to  the  merchant  who  in 
turn  sold  it  to  the  consumer. 

This  corresponds  rather  closely  to  what  is  called  the 
“sweat  shop”  method  of  the  present  time.  Goods  in  a 
raw  or  a semi-raw  state  are  received  by  the  workman  from 
the  “manufacturer”  and  carried  home;  the  workmen  per- 
forms, with  the  help  of  his  family,  certain  specified  opera- 
tions and  upon  the  return  of  the  goods  is  paid  for  his  work. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  9 

Or  in  agriculture,  to  the  contract  method,  whereby  specified 
products  such  as  sugar  beets,  sweet-corn,  peas,  beans, 
tomatoes,  fruits,  and  other  products  for  manufacture,  can- 
ning, preserving,  or  pickling  in  a factory,  are  raised  by  the 
farmer  and  sold  to  the  manufacturer  at  a previously 
agreed-upon  contract  price.  Under  the  guild  plan  the 
manufacturer  or  importer  sold  usually  to  the  ultimate  con- 
sumer. So  the  economic  system  was  gradually  growing 
more  complex,  and  the  interdependence  of  man  upon  man 
more  pronounced. 

The  older  agricultural  procedure  had  not  entirely  dis- 
appeared. Most  families  cultivated  land,  and  raised  more 
or  less  stock  and  poultry,  but  performed  the  work  of  manu- 
facturing as  a side  line,  as  at  present  in  the  Middle  West 
farmers  make  grain  and  stock  raising  their  main  industry 
with  dairying,  vegetable  gardening,  poultry,  and  eggs  as 
mere  adjuncts,  although  these  latter  often  bring  in  about 
as  much  money  as  the  former.  Defoe 5 describes  these 
methods  (1724-1726)  as  follows: 

[The  land]  was  divided  into  small  inelosures  from  two  acres 
to  six  or  seven  each,  seldom  more;  every  three  or  four  pieces  of 
land  had  a house  belonging  to  them  . . . hardly  an  house  stand- 
ing out  of  a speaking  distance  from  another.  ...  We  could  see 
at  every  house  a tenter,  and  on  almost  every  tenter  a piece  of 
cloth  or  kersie  or  shaloon.  ...  At  every  considerable  house  was 
a manufactury.  . . . Every  clothier  keeps  one  horse,  at  least,  to 
carry  his  manufactures  to  the  market,  and  everyone  generally 
keeps  a cow  or  two  or  more  for  his  family.  By  this  means  the 
small  pieces  of  inclosed  land  about  each  house  are  occupied,  for 
they  scarce  sow  corn  enough  to  feed  their  poultry.  ...  The 
houses  are  full  of  lusty  fellows,  some  at  the  dye-vat,  some  at  the 
looms,  others  dressing  the  cloths,  the  women  or  children  carding 
or  spinning,  being  all  employed,  from  the  youngest  to  the  oldest. 

Governmental  Control. — The  numerous  guilds  reached 
their  zenith  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
and  then  gradually  diminished  in  importance.  Some  of 
them,  however,  still  remain  active  in  London.  During  the 

B Quoted  by  Ely  in  ‘ ‘ Outlines  of  Economics.  ’ ’ Macmillan,  New 
York. 


10  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

recent  World  War  several  were  engaged  in  welfare  work. 
Guilds  in  France  were  destroyed  or  lapsed  into  desuetude 
during  the  revolution,  1791-1815.  Those  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  likewise  during  the  revolutionary  years  of 
1833-40 ; of  Austria  and  Germany  in  1859-60  and  of  Italy 
in  1864.  Guilds,  as  known  in  Europe,  never  found  a sub- 
stantial lodging  in  the  United  States. 

The  functions  of  the  guilds  were  gradually  taken  over 
by  the  government,  which  seemed  later  to  be  a better  and 
more  satisfactory  medium  to  control  labor,  trade,  and  com- 
merce. Laws  were  enacted  in  England  to  regulate  the 
entering  of  apprentices,  to  force  able  bodied  men  to  serve 
as  agricultural  laborers  in  case  of  need,  and  to  work  the 
roads  annually.  Justices  of  the  Peace  were  given  authority 
to  settle  disputes  and  regulate  wages.  Foreign  trade  was 
by  laws  and  Royal  Grants  encouraged;  likewise  immigra- 
tion of  artisans  to  introduce  new  industries,  the  establish- 
ment of  foreign  colonies  and  the  development  of  banking 
and  insurance.  Almshouses  were  built  and  poor  laws  en- 
acted to  care  for  the  old  and  indigent.  The  public  roads 
were  still  very  poor  but  a beginning  was  made  for  their 
betterment.  Macaulay,  in  writing  of  the  State  of  England 
in  1685,®  has  considerable  to  say  regarding  the  condition 
of  the  highways.  Speaking  of  the  lack  of  homogeneity 
among  the  people  he  says : 

There  was  not  then  the  intercourse  which  now  exists  between 
the  two  classes.  [The  Londoner  and  the  rustic  Englishman.] 
Only  very  great  men  were  in  the  habit  of  dividing  the  year  be- 
tween town  and  country.  Few  esquires  came  to  the  capital  thrice 
in  their  lives.  [And  again],  The  chief  cause  which  made  the 
fusion  of  the  different  elements  of  society  so  imperfect  was  the 
extreme  difficulty  found  in  passing  from  place  to  place.  Of  all 
inventions,  the  alphabet  and  the  printing  press  alone  excepted, 
those  inventions  which  abridge  distance  have  done  most  for  the 
civilization  of  our  species.  Every  improvement  of  the  means  of 
locomotion  benefits  mankind  morally  and  intellectually  as  well 
as  materially,  and  not  only  facilitates  the  interchange  of  the 
various  productions  of  nature  and  art,  but  tends  to  remove 

6 “The  History  of  England,’’  by  Thomas  Babington  Macaulay, 
Chapter  III. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  11 


national  and  provincial  antipathies,  and  to  bind  together  all  the 
branches  of  the  great  human  family. 

[Further  on],  It  was  by  the  highways  that  both  travellers  and 
goods  generally  passed  from  place  to  place;  and  those  highways 
appear  to  have  been  far  worse  than  might  have  been  expected 
from  the  degree  of  wealth  and  civilization  which  the  nation  had 
even  then  attained. 

The  degree  of  civilization  attained  was  no  doubt  due  to 
other  things  than  the  public  roads.  Sea  transportation 
brought  to  England  the  products  of  the  world.  Coast  trans- 
portation was  well  developed  and  river  and  canal  trans- 
portation had  well  begun.  Macaulay  states  that 

One  chief  cause  of  the  badness  of  the  roads  seems  to  have  been 
the  defective  state  of  the  law.  Every  parish  was  bound  to  repair 
the  highways  which  passed  through  it.  The  peasantry  were 
forced  to  give  their  gratuitous  labor  six  days  in  the  year.  . . . 
That  a route  connecting  two  great  towns,  which  have  a large  and 
thriving  trade  with  each  other,  should  be  maintained  at  the  cost 
of  the  rural  population  scattered  between  them,  is  obviously 
unjust. 

This  sounds  like  modern  arguments  against  paving  rural 
roads  and  charging  the  cost  to  the  abutting  property,  and 
is  evidently  one  good  reason  for  state  and  national  aid. 

However,  transportation  and  travel  continued  to  im- 
prove. On  the  main  roads  “waggons”  were  employed  to 
transport  goods  and  stage  coaches  for  people,  while  pack 
animals  and  riding  horses  were  used  on  less  frequented 
trails  and  roads.  Four  and  six  horses  were  necessary  to 
pull  a carriage  or  a coach  “because  with  a smaller  number 
there  was  great  danger  of  sticking  fast  in  the  mire.”  A 
diligence  ran  between  London  and  Oxford  in  two  days,  but 
in  1669  it  was  announced  that  the  “Flying  Coach  would 
perform  the  whole  journey  between  sunrise  and  sunset.” 
The  heads  of  the  university  after  solemn  deliberation  gave 
consent  and  the  experiment  proved  successful.  The  rival 
university  at  Cambridge,  not  to  be  outdone,  set  up  a dili- 
gence to  run  from  Cambridge  to  London  in  one  day.  Soon 
flying  coaches  were  carrying  passengers  to  other  points. 
Posts  were  established  for  the  change  of  horses  and  longer 


12  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

distances  essayed.  This  mode  of  traveling  was  extolled  by 
contemporaneous  writers  “as  far  superior  to  any  similar 
vehicles  ever  known  in  the  world.  ” It  is  not  to  be  thought 
that  these  advances  in  rapid  transportation  were  without 
objectors.  According  to  Macaulay, 

It  was  vehemently  argued  that  this  mode  of  conveyance  would 
be  fatal  to  the  breed  of  horses  and  to  the  noble  art  of  horseman- 
ship ; that  the  Thames,  which  had  long  been  an  important 
nursery  of  seamen,  would  cease  to  be  the  chief  thoroughfare  from 
London  up  to  Windsor  and  down  to  Gravesend;  that  saddlers  and 
spurriers  would  be  ruined  by  hundreds;  that  numerous  inns,  at 
which  mounted  travelers  had  been  in  the  habit  of  stopping,  would 
be  deserted,  and  would  no  longer  pay  any  rent;  that  the  new 
carriages  were  too  hot  in  summer  and  too  cold  in  winter;  that 
the  passengers  were  greviously  annoyed  by  invalids  and  crying 
children;  that  the  coach  sometimes  reached  the  inn  so  late  that  it 
was  impossible  to  get  supper,  and  sometimes  started  so  early  that 
it  was  impossible  to  get  breakfast. 

Objections  of  this  character  have  been  made  against 
every  innovation  and  advancement  in  travel  and  transpor- 
tation to  the  present  day  when  the  air-plane  is  beginning 
to  attract  notice  as  an  economic  vehicle.  Laws  were  then 
demanded  and  passed,  as  they  are  now,  to  regulate  power 
and  speed,  accommodations  and  rates,  and  multifarious 
other  things  which  might  affect  the  privileges  or  profits  of 
those  interested  in  older  methods,  as  well  as  laws  for  the 
protection  and  safety  of  the  general  public. 

Agriculture. — It  might  be  thought  that  the  agriculture 
of  the  preceding  stage  of  development  might  wane.  But 
not  so ; with  the  division  of  labor  and  improved  transporta- 
tion and  marketing  facilities  agriculture  received  a great 
impetus.  Larger  tracts  wTere  farmed  by  the  individual. 
Growing  crops  and  stock  became  more  of  a business  and 
from  the  lords  of  the  manor  was  evolved  the  landed  aristo- 
cracy of  the  country.  To  he  sure,  there  were  holders  who 
cultivated  their  own  soil,  but  much  was  held  upou  lease- 
holds for  short  or  long  periods.  Many  still  lived  in  the 
villages  where  “commons”  were  laid  out  for  the  pasturage 
of  the  few  cows  each  family  needed  for  its  own  milk. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  13 


Farms  were  divided  by  hedges  into  fields  or  closes,  the 
amount  of  land  depending  upon  the  rent.  The  “Book  of 
Surveying,”  by  Fitzherbert,  1539,  gives  reasons  for  such 
closes  and  explains  the  manner  of  laying  them  out  so  that 
they  shall  be  most  convenient  and  together.  The  following 
is  a specimen  of  his  style : 

Now  every  husband  hath  sixe  severall  closes  whereof  iii.  be  for 
corne,  the  fourthe  for  his  leyse,  the  fyfthe  for  his  commen  pas- 
tures, and  the  sixte  for  his  haye;  and  in  wynter  time  there  is 
but  one  occupied  with  corne,  and  then  hath  the  husbande  other 
fyue  to  occupy  tyll  lent  come,  and  then  he  that  hath  his  falowe 
felde,  his  ley  felde,  and  his  pasture  felde  al  sommer,  and  when 
he  hath  mowen  his  medowe  then  he  hath  his  medowe  grounde, 
soo  that  if  he  hath  any  weyke  catel  that  wold  be  amended,  or 
dyvers  maner  of  catel,  he  may  put  them  in  any  close  he  wyll, 
the  which  is  a great  advantage;  and  if  all  should  lye  commen, 
then  wolde  the  edyche  of  the  corne  feldes  and  the  aftermath  of 
all  the  medowes  be  eaten  in  X or  XII  dayes.  And  the  rych  men 
that  hath  moche  catel  wold  have  the  advantage,  and  the  poore 
man  can  have  no  helpe  nor  relefe  in  wynter  when  he  hath  most 
nede;  . . . and  if  any  of  his  thre  closes  that  he  hath  for  his 
corne  be  worn  or  ware  bare,  then  he  may  breke  and  plowe  up 
his  close  that  he  had  for  his  layse,  or  the  close  that  he  had  for 
his  commen  pasture,  or  bothe,  and  sowe  them  with  corne  and  let 
the  other  lye  for  a time,  and  so  shall  he  have  always  reist 
grounds,  the  which  will  bear  moche  corne,  with  lytel  donge;  and 
also  he  shall  have  a great  profyte  of  the  wod  in  the  hedges  when 
it  is  growen;  and  not  only  these  profytes  and  advantages  afore- 
said but  he  shall  save  moche  more  than  al  these,  for  by  reason 
of  these  closes  he  shall  save  meate  drinke,  and  wages  of  a shep- 
herde,  the  wages  of  the  heerdmen,  and  the  wages  of  the  swine- 
herde,  the  which  may  fortune  to  be  as  chargeable  as  all  his  liolle 
rent;  and  also  his  corne  shall  be  better  saved  from  eatings  or 
destroying  with  catel. 

Later  the  system  of  crop  rotation  came  into  vogue  result- 
ing in  great  improvement  in  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

In  the  same  author’s  “Book  of  Husbandry,”  1534,  are 
described  farm  tools  and  their  uses.  There  are  explana- 
tions to  show  where  a “horse  plow”  is  better  and  where 
an  “oxen  plow.”  It  indicates  that  beans,  peas,  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats  are  common  crops,  and  that  some  vege- 
tables and  root-crops  were  coming  into  use.  Wheat  was 


14  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

probably  sowed  after  plowing  up  a pasture  or  “fallowe” 
field,  for  he  observes, 

the  greater  elottes  (clods)  the  better  wheate,  for  the  c-lottes 
kepe  the  wheate  warm  all  wynter;  and  at  march  they  will  melte 
and  breake  and  fae  in  many  small  peces,  the  which  is  a new 
donynge  and  refreshynge  of  the  corne. 

The  industries  and  arts  of  transportation  continued  to 
develop : ocean  craft,  especially,  became  more  numerous 
and  more  efficient.  Learning  and  art  grew  in  harmony  as 
the  intercourse  of  the  peoples  of  the  country  and  of  the 
world  increased. 

The  Industrial  Stage. — This  stage  of  economical  civi- 
lization, while  brought  about  gradually  through  many 
years  as  factories  and  special  work  shops  came  into  exist- 
ence, was  nevertheless  greatly  accelerated  by  the  inven- 
tions of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  The 
invention  of  the  canal  lock  (it  is  a disputed  question 
whether  in  Holland  or  in  Italy)  in  the  fourteenth 
century  had  made  practicable  the  building  of  many 
canals  throughout  Europe,  one  of  the  largest  across 
France  connecting  the  Bay  of  Biscay  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  However,  the  building  of  important  com- 
mercial canals  began  in  England  with  the  Bridgewater 
Canal  from  Worsley  to  Manchester,  completed  in  1767. 
Green  7 tells  us  that  the  main  roads  which  lasted  fairly 
well  through  the  middle  ages  had  broken  down  under  the 
increased  production  of  the  eighteenth  century.  That 
the  new  lines  of  trades  lay  along  “mere  country  lanes”; 
that  much  of  the  woolen  trade  had  to  be  carried  on  long 
trains  of  pack  animals  at  a large  cost;  that  transporta- 
tion “in  the  case  of  heavier  goods  such  as  coal  distribu- 
tion was  almost  impracticable  save  along  the  greater 
rivers.”  In  fact  coal  was  ordinarily  referred  to  as  “sea 
coal”  because  it  was  brought  to  most  ports  by  water 
routes.  The  Duke  of  Bridgewater  and  a young  engineer 

’“History  of  the  English  People,’’  by  John  Biehard  Green, 
Paragraph  1527. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  15 

of  the  name  of  Brindley  solved  the  problem  of  transporta- 
tion for  the  time  being  by  beginning  the  great  network 
of  canals  which  later  covered  England  to  the  extent  of 
more  than  3000  miles.  Too  great  praise  cannot  be  given  to 
the  engineers  and  constructors  of  these  canals.  Brindley 
considered  canals  not  as  adjuncts  of  rivers  and  bays,  on 
the  contrary  “rivers  were  only  meant,”  he  said,  “to  feed 
canals.”  He  carried  this  canal  by  means  of  an  aqueduct 
over  the  river  to  Manchester,  thus  bringing  the  coal  to  a 
new  thriving  manufacturing  city.  Green  further  says 
(Paragraph  1528) 

To  English  trade  the  canal  opened  up  the  richest  of  all  markets, 
the  market  of  England  itself.  Every  part  of  the  country  was 
practically  thrown  open  to  the  manufacturer;  and  the  impulse 
which  was  given  by  this  facility  of  carriage  was  at  once  felt  in 
a vast  development  of  production.  But  such  a development 
would  have  been  impossible  had  not  the  discovery  of  this  new 
mode  of  distribution  been  accompanied  by  the  discovery  of  a new 
productive  force.  In  the  coal  which  lay  beneath  her  soil  England 
possessed  a store  of  force  which  had  hitherto  remained  almost 
useless. 

Not  the  least  were  the  new  methods  of  smelting  iron 
with  coal  instead  of  wood,  which  changed  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  iron  trade  and  which  made  Great  Britain 
for  many  years  the  workshop  of  the  world.  Lead,  copper, 
and  tin  were  also  mined  and  smelted  by  the  use  of  coal. 
The  great  advance  of  the  “industrial  revolution”  did 
not  come  until  Watt’s  improvements  upon  the  steam 
engines  of  Newcomen,  Cawley,  and  Savery,  which  were 
themselves  improvements  over  earlier  inventions  of  Papin, 
della  Porta,  and  Worcester,  made  practicable  the  transfer 
of  energy  stored  up  in  coal  to  the  movement  of 
machinery.  He  changed  the  steam  engine  from  a clumsy, 
wasteful,  inefficient  machine  into  a workable  apparatus 
little  differing  from  the  reciprocating  steam  engines  of  the 
present.  Up  until  the  successful  operation  of  the  turbine 
engine,  the  principal  advances  upon  Watt’s  engine  were 
mere  details,  though  often  of  great  importance.  For  in- 
stance the  boilers  for  the  generation  of  steam  were  im- 


16  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 


proved;  the  enlarged  application  of  the  principle  of  ex- 
pansion, developing  better  cut-off  mechanisms  and  gov- 
ernors, to  more  economical  construction  due  to  better 
facilities  and  better  knowledge  of  materials  and  their 
properties ; and  to  the  application  of  the  steam  engine  in 
locomotives  to  propel  transportation  cars. 

Watt’s  claims  and  specifications  for  patents  from  1769 
to  1784  cover  such  inventions  as: 

1.  Methods  of  keeping  the  cylinder  or  steam  vessel  hot 
by  covering  it  with  wood  or  other  slow  heat-conducting 
materials,  by  surrounding  it  with  steam  or  other  heated 
bodies,  and  by  suffering  no  water  or  other  substance 
colder  than  steam  to  touch  it. 

2.  By  condensing  the  steam  in  vessels  entirely  distinct 
from  the  cylinder,  called  condensers,  which  are  to  be  kept 
cool. 

3.  By  drawing  out  of  the  condenser  all  uncondensed 
vapors  or  gases  by  means  of  an  air  pump. 

4.  The  use  of  the  expansion  force  of  steam  directly 
against  the  cylinder. 

5.  The  double-acting  engine  and  the  conversion  of  the 
reciprocating  motion  into  a circular  motion.8 

6.  Throttle  valve  with  governor  and  gear  for  operating 
the  same,  parallel  motion  for  opening  and  closing  the 
valves,  and  indicator. 

These  inventions  not  only  made  it  possible  to  replace 
hand-labor  often  with  machines,  but  made  it  possible  to 
construct  machines  much  more  rapidly  and  to  make  them 
in  every  way  more  convenient. 

Improvement  in  the  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving 
caused  the  textile  establishments  and  population  of  north 
England  to  go  forward  by  leaps  and  bounds. 

Previous  to  the  invention  of  the  “fly  shuttle”  in  1733 
by  John  Kay  of  Bury,  the  weaver  had  to  throw  the  shuttle 
through  the  warp  by  hand.  Weaving  became  much  more 

s It  is  well  to  note  that  Watt  in  his  application  for  a patent  on 
steam  engines  granted  in  1769  also  laid  claim  for  a rotary  engine. 
The  rotary  engine  has  been  lately  developed  into  the  steam  turbine. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  17 

rapid;  also  by  having  several  shuttles  with  different- 
colored  yarn  stripes  and  checks  could  be  woven  into  the 
cloth.  Since  weaving  had  been  made  quicker  and  easier 
there  came  a demand  for  more  yarn.  Three  separate  in- 
ventions satisfied  this,  viz.,  James  Hargreaves  of  Blackburn 
invented  his  “jenny”  about  1767,  by  which  eight  threads 
could  be  spun  at  once.  At  the  same  time  Richard  Ark- 
wright, a barber  of  Preston,  invented  and  developed  the 
throstle  spinning  frame  (1769-1775).  Samuel  Crompton, 
about  1775,  invented  his  spinning  “mule,”  which  seemed 
to  combine  the  good  principles  of  the  others.  Power  was 
applied  to  spinning  about  1785  and  then  it  w>' 
that  needed  accelerating.  To  Cartwright  in  1784  is 
ascribed  the  honor  of  inventing  the  power  loom.  Other 
inventions  for  both  spinning  and  weaving  have  made  al- 
most automatic  the  running  of  thousands  of  spindles  and 
hundreds  of  looms  in  a single  factory. 

Railways  Developed. — With  power  manufacturing  and 
increased  production  due  to  the  adoption  of  improved 
factory  systems  came  still  greater  demand  for  transpor- 
tation. Tramways  had  already  been  laid  in  1676  for 
transporting  coal  from  the  mines  to  the  sea.  The  rails 
were  first  made  of  scantling  laid  in  the  wheel  ruts,  then 
of  straight  rails  of  oak  on  which  “one  horse  would  draw 
from  four  or  five  chaldrons  of  coal.”  Later  (1765)  cast- 
iron  trammels  5 feet  long  by  4 inches  wide  were  nailed  to 
the  wooden  rails.  These  trammels  collected  dust,  there- 
fore in  1789  Jessop  laid  down  at  Loughborough  cast-iron 
edge-rails  and  put  a flanged  wheel  on  the  waggon. 
The  rails  were  also  placed  on  chairs  and  sleepers  (ties), 
the  first  instance  of  this  method.  The  distance  apart  of 
the  rails  was  4 feet  8Y2  inches,  what  is  now  known  as 
“standard  gauge.”  The  success  of  these  coal  roads  sug- 
gested tramways  for  freight  and  for  passenger  transpor- 
tation between  the  larger  towns.  The  canals  had  become 
congested  with  much  traffic ; it  is  said  that  notwithstand- 
ing there  were  three  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
the  merchandise  passing  “did  not  average  more  than 


18  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

1200  tons  daily.”  The  average  rate  of  carriage  was  18s. 
($4.37)  per  ton,  and  the  average  time  of  transit  on  the  50 
miles  of  canal  was  thirty-six  hours.  The  conveyance  of 
passengers  by  the  improved  coach  roads,  was,  for  then, 
quite  rapid  but  rather  expensive. 

Some  experimental  locomotives  had  been  made  and 
used  in  the  mining  regions.  Their  success  led  to  the  build- 
ing of  others.  The  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway 
opened  in  September,  1825,  by  a train  of  thirty-four 
vehicles,  making  a gross  load  of  90  tons,  drawn  by  one 
engine  driven  by  George  Stephenson,  with  a signal  man 
on  horseback  in  advance.  The  train  made  at  times  as 
high  as  15  miles  per  hour.  The  rail  used  weighed  28 
pounds  per  yard.  This  road  was  intended  entirely  for 
freight  but  the  demand  of  the  people  to  ride  was  so  press- 
ing that  a passenger  coach  to  carry  six  inside  and  fifteen 
to  twenty  outside  was  put  on  to  make  the  round  trip  in 
two  hours  at  a fare  of  one  shilling. 

When  the  bill  passed  for  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway  in  1826  Stephenson  was  appointed  engineer  in 
charge  at  a salary  of  $5000  per  year.  This  road  made  a 
great  impression  on  the  national  mind,  no  little  enhanced 
by  the  competition  of  locomotives  at  its  completion  in 
1829,  resulting  in  the  victory  of  Stephenson’s  engine  the 
“Rocket.”  It  made  the  then  astonishing  speed  of  35 
miles  per  hour  and  proved  conclusively  the  practicability 
of  railway  locomotion. 

To  follow  the  progress  of  industry  during  the  nine- 
teenth and  twentieth  centuries  would  require  volumes. 
More  has  probably  been  accomplished,  not  without  evils 
at  times,  than  in  the  whole  preceding  history  of  the 
world.  And  as  no  small  part  of  these  accomplishments 
are  the  means  and  amount  of  travel  and  traffic  and  asso- 
ciated developments  and  organization  made  necessary  by 
the  vast  industries  which  now  supply  the  world’s  wants, 
once  more  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  civilization  of  the 
world  can  be  measured  by  its  transportation. 

Some  Historic  Roads  and  Their  Influence. — In  the 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  19 

brief  survey  of  the  stages  through  which  ordinarily  a 
civilization  passes  note  has  frequently  been  made  that  as 
the  world  progresses  so  does  the  necessary  transportation 
increase  and  improve  in  character.  It  is  not  contended 
that  civilization  follows  the  improvement  of  transporta- 
tion, although  that  is  no  doubt  sometimes  the  case,  but 
that  the  state  of  transportation  follows  up  and  down  with 
the  state  of  civilization.  Very  likely  the  same  could  be 
truthfully  said  of  other  elements  of  civilization  such  as 
literature,  art,  religion,  and  government.  Or  even  if 
there  be  applied  Guizot’s  three  tests  of  a civilized  people: 
“First,  they  review  their  pledges  and  honor;  second,  they 
reverence  and  pursue  the  beautiful  in  painting,  architec- 
ture, and  literature ; third,  they  exhibit  sympathy  in  re- 
form toward  the  poor,  the  weak  and  the  unfortunate,” 
it  will  be  found  that  those  nations  most  progressed  in 
traffic  and  travel  will  rank  highest  in  these  tests. 

Early  Highways. — To  return  to  some  of  the  important 
earlier  highways.  All  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that 
civilization  had  its  origin  in  western  Asia.  Early  history 
speaks  of  the  civilization  and  culture  of  Arabia  and  Egypt, 
of  Assyria  and  Persia.  Coeval  with  these  civilizations  were 
trade  and  commerce.  Great  caravans  of  camels  traversed 
the  sandy  highway  with  their  accompanying  merchants 
carrying  many  products  of  many  lands — frankincense  and 
myrrh  from  Arabia ; cloths  and  carpets  from  Babylon  and 
Sardis ; shawls  from  Cashmere ; leather  from  Cordavan  and 
Morocco ; tin,  copper,  gold,  and  silver  utensils  from  Phoeni- 
cia ; pearls  from  the  Far  East ; and  grain  and  other  agricul- 
tural products  nourished  and  grown  by  the  beneficence  of  the 
great  mother  Nile.  The  extensive  civilizations  of  these 
countries  are  handed  down  stingily  by  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions on  clay  tablets  scattered  here  and  there  among  the 
ruins  of  their  ancient  towns  and  villages,  or  inscribed  upon 
granite  mountain  sides  as  historical  memoranda  for  future 
generations.  Even  Holy  Writ  says  little  about  roads  and 
highways,  but  that  they  were  known  is  evident  from  the 
few  references  made.  Those  things  which  are  commonplace 


20  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 


often  receive  least  attention  by  writers.  In  Isaiah,  35  :8, 
may  be  read:  “And  a highway  shall  be  there,  and  a way, 
and  it  shall  be  called  the  way  of  holyness  . . . the  way- 
faring men,  though  fools,  shall  not  err  therein.”  And 
again,  Isa.  40:3-4,  “The  voice  of  him  that  cryeth  in  the 
wilderness,  prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  straight 
in  the  desert  a highway  for  our  God.  Every  valley  shall 
be  exalted,  and  every  mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low : 
and  the  crooked  shall  be  made  straight  and  the  rough 
places  plain.”  These  would  certainly  indicate  that  in 
Isaiah’s  time  there  were  both  travelers  and  roads  marked 
and  graded.  Isaiah  in  other  places  shows  that  he,  if  not 
himself  a road  builder,  is  familiar  with  that  process:  Isa. 
57  :14,  “ And  shall  say,  cast  ye  up,  cast  ye  up,  prepare  the  way 
take  up  the  stumbling  block  out  of  the  way  of  my  people.  ’ ’ 
Isa.  62:10,  “Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  people;  cast  up, 
cast  up  the  highway ; gather  out  the  stones ; lift  up  a stand- 
ard for  the  people.  ’ ’ Also  J eremiah  likens  the  path  of  the 
wicked  to  an  ungraded  road.  Jeremiah  18:15,  “Because 
my  people  have  forgotten  me,  they  have  burned  in- 
cense to  vanity,  they  have  caused  them  to  stumble  in  their 
ways  from  the  ancient  paths,  to  walk  in  paths,  in  a way 
not  cast  up.” 

The  trade  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  across  Palestine  and  the  great  Arabian  deserts  to 
Persia,  to  Babylonia,  and  possibly  to  India  was  evidently 
of  importance  to  the  fluctuating  destinies  of  Egypt  and 
Assyria,  and  later  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Turkey;  so  much 
so,  that  many  wars  were  waged  for  the  control  of  the  great 
highway  over  which  it  passed.  Palestine  became  a terri- 
tory of  importance.  It  is  said  Jerusalem  has  suffered  some 
three  score  sieges,  most  of  them  because  she  dominated  this 
highway,  being  at  or  near  the  confluence  of  its  forks  reach- 
ing east  into  the  deserts,  north  toward  the  straits  over 
which  a crossing  could  be  made  into  Europe,  and  southward 
to  Egypt.  Egypt  and  Assyria  fought  for  its  control ; Greece 
and  Rome  in  turn  came  into  possession  of  it ; Turkey  and 
the  Mohammedans  for  centuries  monopolized  it;  and  the 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  21 

recent  great  World  War  was  no  doubt  accentuated  by  the 
cupidity  of  Germany  to  control  a long  line  of  transporta- 
tion through  Austria-Hungary,  Bulgaria,  Turkey,  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Persia,  Baluchistan  and  India.9 

Alexander  the  Great  overran  the  East,  besieged  Tyre, 
and  converted  an  island  into  an  isthmus  in  order  to  secure 
and  hold  control  of  the  highway  and  the  rich  bounty  im- 
agined to  be  at  its  farther  end.  “Babylon  is  a ruin,  a 
stately  and  solitary  group  of  palms  marks  where  Memphis 
stood,  jackals  slake  their  thirst  in  the  waters  of  the  sacred 
lake  by  the  hall  of  a thousand  columns  at  Thebes,  but  the 
road  that  formed  the  nexus  between  these  vanished  civiliza- 
tions remains  after  the  winds  of  four  millenniums  have 
sighed  themselves  to  silence  over  the  graves  of  its  forgotten 
architects  and  engineers.  ’ ’ 10 

But  the  Greater  Greece,  built  up  by  the  personality  and 
sword  of  Alexander  the  Great,  fell,  largely,  because  of  the 
lack  of  roads.  The  very  name  of  Alexander  was  sufficient 
to  subdue  city  after  city,  but  as  soon  as  his  personal  in- 
fluence was  at  an  end  the  cities  fell  apart.  Here  was  a 
wonderful  opportunity.  With  magnificent  natural-made 
waterways,  with  innumerable  safe  harbors  what  a chance 
for  commerce,  for  trade  with  the  entire  world.  The  islands 
of  the  Aegean  Sea  were  stepping  stones  to  Asia  Minor; 
Macedonia  furnished  an  open  route  for  the  Bosphorus  and 
Dardanelles ; Thrace  led  to  those  fertile  lands  surrounding 
the  Black  Sea  and  extending  away  to  the  Caspian  and  join- 
ing once  more  with  empire  already  conquered.  On  the 
west  there  was  close  at  hand  the  islands  of,  and  land 
bordering,  the  Adriatic,  the  great  Italian  boot,  and  Sicily 
where  new  civilizations  were  ready  to  rise  and  take  on 
Greek  culture  for  the  mere  offering.  It  would  seem  as 

““Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  were  increasingly  convinced  that 
in  the  further  disintegration  of  the  old  Turkish  Empire  they  must 
be  recognized  in  an  exceptional  way  and  must  be  allowed  ...  to 
acquire  an  undisputed  influence  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf.  ’ ’—Albert  Shaw  in  the  introduction  to  Simonds  ’ 
“History  of  the  World  War.”  Also  see  map  Vol.  II,  p.  346. 

10  Prom  the  report  of  a lecture  at  Shreveport,  La.,  1905,  by  B.  H. 
Carroll,  Professor  of  History,  Baylor  University,  Waco,  Texas. 


22  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

though  Greece  ought  to  have  become  the  fostering  mother 
of  world  colonization,  but  the  different  parts  of  Greece 
proper,  where  the  real  mental  ability  lay,  were  separated 
by  lack  of  roads  from  each  other.  Athens  was  potentially 
nearer  to  the  Black  Sea  than  to  Sparta ; Corinth  was  nearer 
Sicily  than  to  Macedonia.  The  many  Grecian  tribes  were 
distinct,  having  different  laws,  customs  and  manners. 
Intercourse,  which  could  have  been  brought  about  had  there 
been  interconnecting  roads,  was  necessary  to  weld  the 
people  into  a homogeneous  mass.  Sparta  and  Athens,  less 
than  an  hour  apart  by  modern  air-plane,  because  of  the 
mountains,  roadless  and  almost  pathless  between  them, 
barriers  which  they  failed  to  surmount,  developed  different 
forms  of  civilization,  different  thought,  habits,  and  tastes. 
To  Athens  the  world  owes  an  everlasting  debt  for  master- 
pieces in  poetry,  oratory,  architecture,  and  sculpture. 
“There  was  no  Spartan  sculpture,  no  Laconian  painter, 
no  Lacedaemonian  poet.”  The  lack  of  intercommunica- 
tion caused  differences  in  language,  in  customs,  in  ideals, 
and  in  manners,  making  of  Greece  a heterogeneous  con- 
glomeration of  tribes  where  internecine  strife  was  ever 
present,  and  no  strong  centralized  government  could  exist. 
Lucky  for  the  best  of  the  Greek  civilization  that  it  would 
be  carried  to  the  ends  of  the  world  by  the  roads  of  a young 
giant  which  was  arising  in  the  west. 

Roman  Roads. — The  roads  in  Rome  bore  such  a promi- 
nent part  in  the  civilization  that  they  could  not  be  entirely 
overlooked  by  contemporaneous  writers.  The  roads  are 
often  described  as  military  roads  because  they  were 
primarily  planned  to  transport  soldiers  quickly  and  easily 
to  any  desirable  part  of  the  empire.  But  no  doubt  the 
greatness  of  Rome  was  due  more  to  the  traffic  in  goods  and 
people  brought  to  and  taken  away  from  her  precincts  by 
these  roads  than  to  military  prowess.  Her  roads  were 
the  arteries  and  veins  through  which  the  life  blood  of  the 
nation  pulsated ; were  the  sensory  and  motive  nerves  which 
fetched  and  carried  intelligence,  which  prompted  action. 
She  received  and  she  disseminated.  She  was  the  hub  of 


Underwood,  and  Underwood 


THE  APPIAN  WAY 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  23 

the  universe,  her  roads  the  spokes  radiating  to  and  holding 
together  the  limits  of  her  vast  domain. 

How  many  roads  Rome  built  it  is  difficult  to  state,  for 
they  were  found  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Some,  as  those 
in  Italy,  were  very  carefully  and  substantially  built ; others 
less  so,  grading  down  to  mere  trails  in  the  hintermost  dis- 
tricts. The  Via  Egnatia,  which  was  one  of  the  important 
provincial  roads,  is  said  by  Strabo  to  have  been  regularly 
laid  out  and  marked  by  milestones  from  Dyrrhacium, 
(Durazzo)  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic  across  from  the 
heel  of  Italy’s  boot  through  Thessalonica  (Saloniki)  and 
Philippi  to  Cypselus  on  the  Hebnis  and  later  to  the 
Hellespont,  for  Cicero  speaks  of  “that  military  way  of 
ours  which  connects  us  with  the  Hellespont.”  This  road 
became  historic  as  the  scene  of  the  conflict  between  the 
friends  and  enemies  of  the  decaying  Roman  republic. 
Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  one  hand  here  in  42  b.c.,  met  the 
forces  of  Antony  and  Octavius.  There  tradition  states 
the  ghost  of  the  dead  Caesar  met  Brutus,  and  as  a matter 
of  fact,  the  “liberators”  were  cut  to  pieces  in  two  engage- 
ments. Brutus  and  Cassius,  believing  the  cause  of  the 
republic  lost,  both  committed  suicide,  and  the  Roman  world 
was  soon  thereafter  in  the  hands  of  two  masters — Antony 
in  the  East  and  Octavius  in  the  West.  Three  centuries 
later  this  road  became  the  leading  highway  to  Byzantium 
(Constantinople),  the  great  city  founded  by  Constantine, 
impregnable  in  its  rocky  seclusion,  dominating  the  water- 
way to  the  Black  Sea  and  the  rich  agricultural  land 
beyond. 

Some  twenty  of  these  roads,  more  if  their  branches  be 
counted,  concentrated  at  the  Eternal  City  and  passed 
through  her  several  gates.  Rome  could  sit  on  her  seven 
hills  and  by  means  of  these  roads  rule  the  world.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  were  the  Via  Appia,  Via 
Flaminia  and  Via  Aemilia,  Via  Aurelia,  Via  Ostiensis,  and 
Via  Latina.  One  peculiarity  of  these  Roman  roads  was 
their  straightness,  passing  almost  in  a direct  line  between 
determining  points.  Another,  to  which  is  due  their 


24  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

durability,  was  their  massiveness.  Their  general  construc- 
tion may  be  described  as  follows : The  line  of  direction  hav- 
ing been  laid  out  trenches  were  made  along  each  side 
defining  the  width,  which  was  from  13  to  17  feet.  The 
loose  earth  between  was  excavated  to  secure  a firm  founda- 
tion and  the  road  was  then  filled  or  graded  up  to  the  re- 
quired height  with  good  material,  sometimes  as  high  as 
20  feet.  The  pavement  usually  consisted  of  a layer  of 
small  stones;  then  a layer  of  broken  stones  cemented  with 
lime  mortar;  then  a layer  of  broken  fragments  of  brick 
and  pottery  incorporated  with  clay  and  lime;  and  finally 
a mixture  of  gravel  and  lime  or  a floor  of  hard  flat  stones 
cut  into  rectangular  slabs  or  irregular  polygons  fitted 
nicely  together.  The  whole  was  frequently  4 feet  thick. 
Along  the  road  milestones  were  erected,  some  of  them 
quite  elaborate  with  carved  names  and  dates.  Near  the 
arch  of  Septimus  Severus  in  the  Roman  Forum  still  re- 
mains a portion  of  the  “Golden  Milestone,”  a gilded  pillar 
erected  by  Augustus,  on  which  were  carved  the  names  of 
roads  and  lengths  similar  to  a modern  guide  post.  Some 
of  these  roads  were  used  hundreds  of  years  until  they  fell 
into  neglect  after  Rome  had  been  invaded  by  the  northern 
barbarians.  From  a statement  of  Procopinus,  the  Appian 
Way,  construction  begun  312  b.c.,  was  in  good  condition 
800  years  later,  and  he  describes  it  as  broad  enough  for  two 
carriages  to  pass  each  other.  It  was  made  of  stones  brought 
from  some  distant  quarry  and  so  fitted  to  each  other  (over 
some  2 feet  of  gravel)  that  they  seemed  to  be  thus  formed 
by  nature,  rather  than  cemented  by  art.  He  adds  that  not- 
withstanding the  traffic  of  so  many  ages  the  stones  were  not 
displaced,  nor  had  they  lost  their  original  smoothness. 
The  papal  government  excavated,  repaired,  and  reopened 
that  road  as  far  as  Albano  and  it  is  still  being  used  as  a 
highway. 

The  Flaminian  Way  extended  from  Rome  to  Ariminum 
and  thence  was  carried  under  the  name  Via  Aemilia 
through  Parma,  and  Placentia  across  to  Spain.  While  not 
so  much  traffic  passed  over  it,  because  the  West  was 


MAP  OP  ITALY 

Showing'  some  of  the  twenty  or  more  roads  that  radiated  from  Rome 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  25 

sparsely  settled,  as  over  the  Appian  Way,  it  nevertheless 
was  a worthy  rival.  The  Aurelian  Way  followed  up  the 
coast  through  Etruria  and  furnished  another  highway  to 
Spain  and  Gaul.  The  Ostien  highway  connected  Rome 
with  a splendid  harbor  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  But  the 
Appian  Way  was  rightly  the  most  famous  of  all;  it  was  the 
earliest  made,  it  was  perhaps  the  longest  paved  road,  and 
it  carried  the  greatest  amount  of  traffic.  The  road  was 
built  by  Appius  Claudius  Caecus — then  a Roman  Censor, 
afterwards  a Consul,  from  whom  it  takes  its  name — to 
Capua,  a distance  of  142  miles.  Later  it  was  extended 
across  the  Apennine  Mountains  through  Beneventum, 
Venusia,  and  Tarentum,  to  Brundisium,  a port  on  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  in  the  heel  of  the  boot,  a total  distance  of 
350  miles.  The  improvements  of  Appius  were  begun  in 
the  year  312  b.c.,  and  carried  out  at  least  as  far  as  Capua. 
Livy  speaks  of  a road  over  part  of  this  way  some  thirty- 
five  years  earlier.  A portion  outside  the  walls  was  paved 
with  lava  (silex)  in  189  b.c.,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Trajan  (a.d.  98-117)  the  Via  Appia  was  paved  from 
Capua  to  Brundisium  (Niebuhr).  From  Brundisium 
(Brindis)  traffic  could  be  carried  by  ship  to  Dyrrhacium 
and  thence  over  the  Via  Egnatio  to  Macedonia  and  the 
Bosphorus ; or  along  the  coast  to  the  Grecian  towns,  to  the 
cities  of  the  Far  East  and  to  Egypt.  Many  are  the  refer- 
ences to  the  noted  highway  in  literature ; Milton,  in  ‘ ‘ Para- 
dise Regained,”  book  four,  bids  us  to  watch  flocking  to 
the  city,  enriched  with  spoils,  proconsuls,  embassies, 
legions,  in  “various  habits  on  the  Appian  road.” 

“What  a cosmopolitan  throng  must  have  graced  that 
highway  in  the  first  century, ” says  Dr.  Carroll.11  “Thick- 
lipped  Ethiopians  with  rings  in  noses  and  ears,  swarthy- 
browed  turbaned  Mesopotamians,  haughty  Parthians, 
burnoosed  Arabs  still  worshiping  their  polygods,  hook- 
nosed Hebrews,  carven  with  the  humility  of  the  despised 

"Lecture  delivered  at  Shreveport,  La.,  by  B.  H.  Carroll,  Ph.D., 
Professor  of  History,  Baylor  University,  Waco,  Texas,  later  U.  S. 
Consul  at  Naples. 


26  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

rich,  Greek  Pedagogues  and  Rhetors  and  Tutors,  togaed 
senators,  white-clad  vestals  with  modest  faces,  and  painted 
harlots  with  amber  hair.  Lictors  clearing  the  way  with 
rods  for  some  purple  clad  dignitary  of  Nero’s  court  and 
carrying  the  fasces  and  the  ax;  street  merchants  and 
hawkers  of  small  wares,  slaves  scantily  clad,  stark  be- 
muscled  gladiators,  Cives  and  Peregrini,  citizens  and 
strangers,  displaying,  in  varying  degree,  arrogance  and 
curiosity ; long  yellow-haired  Germans,  their  faces  smeared 
with  ocher  and  their  yellow  hair  with  oil;  kilted  soldiers 
with  long  spears  and  short  broad  swords ; beggars  (the 
lazzaroni  of  that  bygone  age),  pathetically  sullen  or 
volubly  mendicant  in  the  sunshine  lecticae ; couches 
carried  by  bearers  containing  pampered  nobles  or  high- 
born ladies;  the  cisium  and  the  rhoda  meritoria ; the  car- 
riage and  the  hack  of  that  time  crossing  each  other’s  path 
in  the  narrow  road ; children  naked  and  joyous ; merchants 
on  caparisoned  asses ; the  swinging  columns  of  the  legion- 
aries; brown,  straight-featured  Egyptians.  For  part 
of  the  distance  a canal  runs  parallel  and  travelers  have 
their  choice  to  take  the  pavement  or  to  ride  in  state  on 
painted  barges  dragged  by  mules;  on  the  pavement  a 
Pontifex  in  his  robes  of  office  and  Augurs  exchanging 
cynical  smiles;  the  rattle  of  chariot  wheels  and  some  hag- 
gard-eyed  noble,  redolent  from  the  warm  and  scented  bath, 
with  flower-crowned  brow,  drives  in  furious  guise  along 
the  Appian  Way,  while  barbarian  and  Scythian,  bond  and 
free,  yield  the  way  before  him.  ’ ’ 

Davis 12  tells  us  that  the  Roman  road  system  after  it  had 
become  a network  over  Italy  began  to  spread  over  the  whole 
Empire.  That  admirable  highways  were  built  by  peace- 
ful legionaries  for  commercial  purposes — and  that  even  to- 
day in  North  Africa  and  in  the  wilds  of  Asia  Minor  where 
travelers  seldom  penetrate  may  be  found  the  Roman  road 
with  its  hard  stones  laid  on  a solid  foundation.  He  fur- 
ther states  that  as  a consequence  of  these  roads  commerce 

““The  Influence  of  Wealth  in  Imperial  Rome,”  by  William 
Stearns  Davis,  The  Macmillan  Company,  N.  Y.,  pp.  95-105. 


MAP  OF  ROMAN  ROADS  IN  ENGLAND 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  27 

expanded  by  leaps  and  bounds.  A great  trade  passing 
down  the  Red  Sea  sprang  up  with  India,  reaching  to  the 
coast  of  Ceylon,  returning  with  pearls,  rare  tapestries,  and 
spices.  Another  set  penetrated  Arabia  for  much-desired 
incense,  or  unto  the  heart  of  Africa  for  ivory.  Also  with 
such  merchandising  there  came  a money  system  with  banks, 
checks  and  bonds  rivaling  those  of  the  present  day.  The 
bridges  are  an  important  part  of  any  road.  Those  across 
the  Tiber  in  Rome  were  regarded  as  sacred.  They  were 
eared  for  by  a special  body  of  Priests  called  ponti faces 
(bridge-makers).  The  name  Pontifex  Maximus  was  borne 
by  the  High  Priest  and  became  a designation  for  the  em- 
peror; it  is  now  applied  to  the  Pope  as  the  highest  au- 
thority in  the  papal  or  pontifical  state. 

Pre-historic  American  Roads. — When  America  was  dis- 
covered it  was  sparsely  settled  with  tribes  of  semi- 
civilized  peoples.  The  ordinary  aborigine  was  in  the  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  stage,  just  beginning  to  cultivate  crops. 
True,  tribes  claimed  regions  and  attempted  by  force  to  keep 
other  tribes  from  trespassing  thereon.  They  had  no 
literature  save  perhaps  a few  rough  diagrams  or  drawings. 
There  was  no  trade  or  commerce  and  consequently  no  roads 
except  mere  trails.  Their  methods  of  transportation  con- 
sisted in  walking  or  in  paddling  canoes.  In  the  making  and 
operating  of  canoes  and  of  weapons  of  warfare  and  of  the 
chase  they  were  most  advanced. 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  there  had  been  a civiliza- 
tion, but  so  long  ago  no  very  authentic  knowledge  of  its 
character  can  be  predicated  upon  the  mounds,  utensils,  and 
other  evidence  now  remaining.  The  Mound  Builders  and 
the  Cliff  Dwellers  are  as  yet  to  us  unknown  peoples. 

In  Mexico,  Central  America,13  and  Peru  a much  higher 
civilization  prevailed.  Especially  in  Peru  where  a very 
high  state  of  agriculture  was  in  vogue.  There  is  even  evi- 

” See  “Mysterious  Temples  of  the  Jungle,”  by  W.  F.  Sands,  and 
“Excavations  at  Quirigua,  Guatemala”  by  S.  T.  Morley.  The 
National  Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1913. 


28  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 


dence  of  a considerable  degree  of  Art  and  Literature.14 
Many  of  the  remains  remind  one  of  early  Egyptian  and 
Persian  temples  and  roads,  but  perhaps  no  more  lucid  de- 
scription of  the  ancient  Peruvian  roads  and  transportation 
exists  than  that  given  in  Prescott’s  justly  celebrated  classic, 

‘ ‘ The  Conquest  of  Peru.  ’ ’ Slightly  abridged  it  reads  thus : 

Those  who  may  distrust  the  accounts  of  Peruvian  industry  will 
find  their  doubts  removed  on  a visit  to  the  country.  The  traveler 
still  meets,  especially  in  the  central  regions  of  the  tableland,  with 
memorials  of  the  past,  remains  of  temples,  palaces,  fortresses, 
terraced  mountains,  great  military  roads,  aqueducts,  and  other 
public  works,  which,  whatever  degree  of  science  they  may  dis- 
play in  their  execution,  astonish  him  by  their  number,  the  massive 
character  of  the  materials,  and  the  grandeur  of  the  design. 
Among  them,  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  are  the  great  roads, 
the  broken  remains  of  which  are  still  in  sufficient  preservation  to 
attest  their  former  magnificence.  There  were  many  of  these 
roads,  traversing  different  parts  of  the  kingdom:  but  the  most 
considerable  were  the  two  which  extended  from  Quito  to  Cuzco, 
and,  again  diverging  from  the  capital,  continued  in  a southerly 
direction  toward  Chili. 

One  of  these  roads  passed  over  the  great  plateau,  and  the 
other  along  the  lowlands  on  the  borders  of  the  ocean.  The  for- 
mer was  much  the  more  difficult  achievement,  from  the  character 
of  the  country.  It  was  conducted  over  pathless  sierras  buried  in 
snow;  galleries  were  cut  for  leagues  through  the  living  rock; 
rivers  were  crossed  by  means  of  bridges  that  swung  suspended  in 
the  air;  precipices  were  scaled  by  stairways  hewn  out  of  the 
native  bed;  ravines  of  hideous  depths  were  filled  up  with  solid 
masonry ; in  short,  all  the  difficulties  that  beset  a wild  and  moun- 
tainous region,  and  which  might  appall  the  most  courageous 
engineer  of  modern  times,  were  encountered  and  successfully 
overcome.  The  length  of  the  road,  of  which  scattered  fragments 
only  remain,  is  variously  estimated  at  from  fifteen  hundred  to 
two  thousand  miles ; and  stone  pillars,  in  the  manner  of  European 
milestones,  were  erected  at  stated  intervals  of  somewhat  more 
than  a league,  all  along  the  route.  Its  breadth  scarcely  exceeded 
twenty  feet.  It  was  built  of  heavy  flags  of  freestone,  and,  in 
some  parts  at  least,  covered  with  a bituminous  cement,  which 
time  has  made  harder  than  the  stone  itself.  In  some  places  where 

14  See  several  excellent  articles  with  illustrations  on  the  explorations 
made  in  Peru  by  a joint  expedition  of  Yale  University  and  The 
National  Geographic  Society  in  The  National  Geographic  Magazine, 
April,  1913,  February,  1915,  and  May,  1916. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  29 


the  ravines  had  been  filled  up  with  masonry,  the  mountain  torrents, 
wearing  on  it  for  ages,  have  gradually  eaten  away  through  the 
base,  and  left  the  superincumbent  mass — such  is  the  cohesion  of 
the  materials — still  spanning  the  valley  like  an  arch. 

Over  some  of  the  boldest  streams  it  was  necessary  to  con- 
struct suspension  bridges,  as  they  are  termed,  made  of  the  tough 
fibers  of  the  maguey,  or  of  the  osier  of  the  country,  which  has 
an  extraordinary  degree  of  tenacity  and  strength.  These  osiers 
were  woven  into  cables  of  the  thickness  of  a man’s  body.  The 
huge  ropes,  then  stretched  across  the  water,  were  conducted 
through  rings  or  holes  cut  in  immense  buttresses  of  stone  raised 
on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  river  and  then  secured  to  heavy 
pieces  of  timber.  Several  of  these  enormous  cables  bound  to- 
gether formed  a bridge  which,  covered  with  planks,  well  secured 
and  defended  by  a railing  of  the  same  osier  materials  on  the 
sides,  afforded  a safe  passage  for  the  traveler.  The  length  of 
this  aerial  bridge,  sometimes  exceeding  two  hundred  feet,  caused 
it,  confined  as  it  was  only  at  the  extremities,  to  dip  with  an 
alarming  inclination  towards  the  center,  while  the  motion  given 
to  it  by  the  passenger  occasioned  an  oscillation  still  more 
frightful,  as  his  eye  wandered  over  the  dark  abyss  of  waters  that 
foamed  and  tumbled  many  fathoms  beneath.  Yet  these  light  and 
fragile  fabrics  were  crossed  without  fear  by  the  Peruvians,  and 
are  still  retained  by  the  Spaniards  over  those  streams  which, 
from  the  depth  or  impetuosity  of  the  current,  would  seem  im- 
practicable for  the  usual  modes  of  conveyance.  The  wider  and 
more  tranquil  waters  were  crossed  on  balsas — a kind  of  raft  still 
much  used  by  the  natives — to  which  sails  were  attached,  furnish- 
ing the  only  instance  of  this  higher  kind  of  navigation  among 
the  American  Indians. 

The  other  great  road  of  the  Incas  lay  through  the  level  country 
between  the  Andes  and  the  ocean.  It  was  constructed  in  a dif- 
ferent manner,  as  demanded  by  the  nature  of  the  ground,  which 
was  for  the  most  part  low,  and  much  of  it  sandy.  The  causeway 
was  raised  on  a high  embankment  of  earth,  and  defended  on 
either  side  by  a parapet  or  wall  of  clay ; and  trees  and  odoriferous 
shrubs  were  planted  along  the  margin,  regaling  the  senses  of  the 
traveler  with  their  perfumes,  and  refreshing  him  by  their  shades, 
so  grateful  under  the  burning  sky  of  the  tropics.  In  the  strips 
of  sandy  waste  which  occasionally  intervened,  where  the  light 
and  volatile  soil  was  incapable  of  sustaining  a road,  huge  piles, 
many  of  them  to  be  seen  at  this  day,  were  driven  into  the  ground 
to  indicate  the  route  to  the  traveler. 

All  along  these  highways,  caravansaries,  or  tambos,  as  they 
were  called,  were  erected,  at  the  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  miles 
from  each  other,  for  the  accommodation,  more  particularly  of  the 
Inca  and  his  suite  and  those  who  journeyed  on  the  public  busi- 


30  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 


ness.  There  were  few  other  travelers  in  Peru.  Some  of  these 
buildings  were  on  an  extensive  scale,  consisting  of  a fortress, 
barracks,  and  other  military  works,  surrounded  by  a parapet  of 
stone  and  covering  a large  tract  of  ground.  These  were  evidently 
destined  for  the  accommodation  of  the  imperial  armies  when  on 
their  march  across  the  country.  The  care  of  the  great  roads 
was  committed  to  the  districts  through  which  they  passed,  and 
under  the  Incas  a large  number  of  hands  was  constantly  em- 
ployed to  keep  them  in  repair.  This  was  the  more  easily  done 
in  the  country  where  the  mode  of  traveling  was  altogether  on 
foot;  though  the  roads  are  said  to  be  so  nicely  constructed  that 
a carriage  might  have  rolled  over  them  as  securely  as  on  any  of 
the  great  roads  of  Europe.  Still  in  a region  where  the  elements 
of  fire  and  water  are  both  actively  at  work  in  the  business  of 
destruction,  they  must,  without  constant  supervision,  have 
gradually  gone  to  decay.  Such  has  been  their  fate  under  the 
Spanish  conquerors,  who  took  no  care  to  enforce  the  admirable 
system  for  their  preservation  adopted  by  the  Incas.  Yet  the 
broken  portions  that  still  survive  here  and  there,  like  the  frag- 
ments of  the  great  Roman  roads  scattered  over  Europe,  bear 
evidence  to  their  primitive  grandeur,  and  have  drawn  forth  the 
eulogium  from  a discriminating  traveler,  usually  not  too  pro- 
fuse in  his  panegyric,  that  “the  roads  of  the  Incas  were  among 
the  most  useful  and  stupendous  works  ever  executed  by  man.” 

The  system  of  communication  through  their  dominions  was 
still  further  improved  by  the  Peruvian  sovereigns  by  the  intro- 
duction of  posts,  in  the  same  manner  as  was  done  by  the  Aztecs. 
The  Peruvian  posts,  however,  established  on  all  the  great  routes 
that  conducted  to  the  capital,  were  on  a much  more  extended 
plan  than  those  in  Mexico.  All  along  these  routes,  small  build- 
ings were  erected,  at  the  distance  of  less  than  five  miles  asunder, 
in  each  of  which  a number  of  runners,  or  chasquis,  as  they  were 
called,  were  stationed  to  carry  forward  the  dispatches  of  govern- 
ment. These  dispatches  were  either  verbal,  or  conveyed  by 
means  of  quipus,  and  sometimes  accompanied  b}T  a thread  of  the 
crimson  fringe  worn  round  the  temples  of  the  Inca,  which  was 
regarded  with  the  same  implicit  deference  as  the  signet-ring  of  an 
Oriental  despot. 

The  chasquis  were  dressed  in  a peculiar  livery,  intimating 
their  profession.  They  were  all  trained  to  the  employment  and 
selected  for  their  speed  and  fidelity.  As  the  distance  each  courier 
had  to  perform  was  small,  and  as  he  had  ample  time  to  refresh 
himself  at  the  stations,  they  ran  over  the  ground  with  great 
swiftness,  and  messages  were  carried  through  the  whole  extent 
of  the  long  routes,  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  a 
day.  The  office  of  the  chasquis  was  not  limited  to  carrying  dis- 
patches. They  frequently  brought  various  articles  for  the  use 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  31 


of  the  court  and  in  this  way  fish  from  the  distant  ocean,  fruits, 
game,  and  different  commodities  from  the  hot  regions  on  the 
coast,  were  taken  to  the  capital  in  good  condition,  and  served 
fresh  at  the  royal  table.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  important 
institution  should  have  been  known  to  both  the  Mexicans  and  the 
Peruvians  without  any  correspondence  with  one  another  and  that 
it  should  have  been  found  among  two  barbarian  nations  of  the 
New  World  long  before  it  was  introduced  among  the  civilized 
nations  of  Europe. 

By  these  wise  contrivances  of  the  Incas,  the  most  distant  parts 
of  the  long  extended  empire  of  Peru  were  brought  into  intimate 
relations  with  each  other.  The  while  the  capitals  of  Christendom, 
but  a few  hundred  miles  apart,  remained  as  far  asunder  as  if 
seas  had  rolled  between  them,  the  great  capitals  Cuzco  and  Quito 
were  placed  by  the  high  roads  of  the  Incas  in  immediate  corre- 
spondence. Intelligence  from  the  numerous  provinces  was  trans- 
mitted on  the  wings  of  the  wind  to  the  Peruvian  metropolis,  the 
great  focus  to  which  all  the  lines  of  communication  converged. 
Not  an  insurrectionary  movement  could  occur,  not  an  invasion  on 
the  remotest  frontier,  before  the  tidings  were  conveyed  to  the 
capital  and  the  imperial  armies  were  on  their  march  across  the 
magnificent  roads  of  the  country  to  suppress  it.  So  admirable 
was  the  machinery  contrived  by  the  American  despots  for  main- 
taining tranquillity  throughout  their  dominions!  It  may  remind 
us  of  the  similar  institutions  of  ancient  Rome,  when,  under  the 
Caesars,  she  was  mistress  of  half  the  world. 

Hiram  Bingham,  Director  of  the  Geographic  Soeiety- 
Yale  Peruvian  Expedition  15  gives  an  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  the  tracing  out  of  two  of  these  old  roads.  Evi- 
dently the  trail  was  mostly  used  by  foot  passengers,  or 
possibly  llamas,  for  there  were  frequently  steep  grades 
and  flights  of  steps  and  open  ravines  which  had  more  than 
likely  been  crossed  by  the  osier  suspension  bridges.  No 
doubt  much  commerce  beside  fertilizer  from  the  great 
nitrate  beds  was  carried  on  over  these  roads. 

Conclusion. — If  the  story,  very  briefly  given,  of  these 
old  roads  does  not  verify  the  thesis  that  transportation  is 
a measure  of  civilization,  a view  might  be  taken  of  the 
tribes  and  peoples  now  living  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
earth.  If  the  character  of  the  transportation  of  the  tribes 
of  Africa  and  of  Asia,  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions, 

15  Geographic  Magazine,  May,  1916. 


32  Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization 

the  least  civilized  now  known,  be  compared  with  that  of 
those  nations  considered  most  civilized,  the  same  general 
conclusion  would  be  drawn.  Compare  the  railways,  canals, 
highways,  cars,  automobiles,  ships,  and  aircraft  of  the 
present-day  United  States  with  the  pack  animals  and  ox- 
carts of  many  less  favored  nations  and  the  further  evidence 
of  amount  of  traffic  and  travel  per  person,  will  be  un- 
necessary to  establish  the  relative  states  of  civilization.  It 
is  not  necessary  even  to  go  beyond  the  confines  of  the  great 
American  Republic.  Writers  who  traveled  through  it  in  the 
’forties,  ’fifties  and  ’sixties  are  wont  to  call  attention  to  the 
uncouthness  of  the  inhabitants,  to  the  lack  of  the  refine- 
ments of  speech  and  manners  characterizing  those  who 
dwelt  in  the  more  populous  communities.  But  the  honesty, 
integrity,  generosity,  willingness,  and  ability  of  the  Ameri- 
can pioneers  to  dare  and  to  do,  were  unquestioned.  It  is  a 
pity  that  many  of  the  best  traits  of  humanity  disappear 
when  people  are  crowded  into  cities,  when  their  wants  and 
desires  are  increased,  when  the  refinements  of  civilization 
have  replaced  the  ruggedness  of  pioneer  life.  Then,  as 
now,  upon  the  action  of  a bare  majority,  which  in  a repub- 
lic is  called  “the  will  of  the  people,”  often  hung  the 
political,  social  and  financial  destiny  of  the  nation.  A 
slight  change  would  have  changed  the  course  of  civilizing 
evolution ; who  knows  whether  for  good  or  ill.  As  the 
trivium  and  quadrivium  were  the  roads,  believed  by  the 
ancients  to  lead  to  a liberal  education,  so  the  government 
and  the  civilization  of  this  now  great  nation  has  rested  con- 
secutively in  its  upward  progress,  upon  the  slender  path  of 
the  aborigine,  swelled  to  the  well  defined  trail  of  the  pack- 
train,  broadened  into  the  cart  and  wagon  road,  cast  lip 
into  a turnpike;  and  upon  the  rippling  trace  of  the  light 
canoe,  the  dugout,  the  keel-boat,  the  pole-boat,  the  flat- 
boat,  the  canal-boat  and  the  steam-boat ; all  to  be  sup- 
planted by  the  thunder  of  the  locomotive.  What  in  the 
process  of  evolution  will  follow  it?  The  automobile,  the 
truck,  the  flying  machine?  Time  alone  can  tell. 


Transportation  a Measure  of  Civilization  33 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Davis,  William  Stearns,  “The  Influence  of  Wealth  on  Imperial 
Rome,”  pp.  85-105.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 

Ely,  Richard  T.,  “Outlines  of  Economics,”  The  Macmillan  Co., 
New  York.  Chapter  III. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  Articles  on  the  “Steam  Engine,” 
“Yarn,”  “Weaving,”  and  “Railway.” 

Green,  John  Richard,  “History  of  the  English  People,”  Book 
IX,  Chapter  III. 

Havell,  H.  L., /'“Republican  Rome,”  p.  112,  Harrap  & Co.,  Lon- 
don, 191£: 

Heitland,  /W.  E.,  “The  Roman  Republic,”  University  Press, 
Cambridge. 

Livy,  Titus,  “History  of  Rome,”  Translated  by  William  A. 
M’Devitte,  Book  IX,  Chap.  29;  XXII,  15;  XXIV,  8;  George 
Bell  & Sons,  London,  1890. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  “The  History  of  England,”  Vol. 
I,  Chapter  III. 

Mommsen,  Professor  Theodor,  “The  History  of  the  Roman  Re- 
public,” Abridgment  by  Bryans  and  Hendy,  pp.  95,  97,  98, 
108,  175,  219,  251,  318,  319,  320.  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons, 
New  York,  1893. 

Morley,  S.  T.,  “Excavations  at  Quirigua,  Guatemala,”  The  Na- 
tional Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1913. 

Account  of  explorations  made  in  Peru  by  a joint  expedition 
of  Yale  University  and  The  National  Geographic  Society  in 
The  National  Geographic  Magazine,  April,  1913,  February, 
1915,  and  May,  1916. 

Niebuhr,  B.  G.,  “Lectures  on  Ancient  History,”  Vol.  Ill,  p.  156; 
“Lectures  on  the  History  of  Rome,”  Vol.  Ill,  p.  229.  Taylor, 
Walton  & Maberly,  London,  1852. 

Osborn,  Henry  F.,  “Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age.”  C.  Scribner’s 
Sons,  New  York,  1915. 

Prescott,  William  H.,  “Conquest  of  Peru,”  2 Vol.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
62-67,  J.  B.  Lippincott  & Co.,  Philadelphia,  1869. 

Sands,  W.  F.,  “Mysterious  Temples  of  the  Jungle,”  in  The  Na- 
tional Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1913. 

Selfridge,  H.  Gordon,  “The  Romance  of  Commerce,”  John  Lane, 
London. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  “In  Darkest  Africa”  (two  volumes).  C. 
Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York. 


CHAPTER  II 


TRANSPORTATION  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES;  EARLY  TRAILS  AND  ROADS 

The  early  settlements  of  this  country  were  made  upon 
the  shores,  naturally,  because  the  settlers  were  brought  by 
ships  from  Europe  and  supplies  of  various  sorts  were 
from  time  to  time  renewed  by  ships.  The  settlers  were  not 
skilled  in  the  art  of  living  on  the  country  as  were  the 
natives  and  when  supply  vessels  failed  to  put  in  their 
appearance  there  was  real  hardship  in  and  sometimes 
entire  extermination  of  the  colonists.  The  penetration  of 
settlement  to  the  interior  was  slow  and  even  to  times 
within  the  memory  of  men  now  living  much  of  the  interior 
was  an  unknown  wilderness. 

The  Birch  Bark  Canoe. — Travel  from  place  to  place  was 
at  first  insignificant  and  what  little  there  was  was  carried 
on  by  walking,  horseback  riding,  or  by  boat.  Settlement, 
which  had  begun  on  the  ocean  or  at  the  head  of  ocean 
navigation  on  inlets  or  rivers,  was  eventually  pushed  far- 
ther inland.  The  rivers  and  other  waterways  being  at  hand 
were  utilized;  the  birch-bark  canoe,  the  dugout,  and  the 
plank  boat,  furnished  the  principal  vehicles  of  transporta- 
tion. The  Indians  were  very  expert  in  the  manufacture 
and  operation  of  light  birch-bark  canoes.  Longfellow  in 
“Hiawatha”  gives  a poetical  description  of  this: 

With  his  knife  the  tree  he  girdled; 

Just  beneath  its  lowest  branches, 

Just  above  the  roots  he  cut  it, 

Till  the  sap  came  oozing  outward; 

Down  the  trunk  from  top  to  bottom, 

Sheer  he  cleft  the  bark  asunder, 

With  a wooden  wedge  he  raised  it 
Stripped  it  from  the  trunk  unbroken. 

34 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  35 

Then,  he  explains  how  the  framework  is  made  of  cedar : 

Like  two  bows  he  framed  and  shaped  them, 

Like  two  bended  bows  together. 

After  which  they  were  tied  together  and  the  bark  fastened 
to  the  frame  by  fibrous  roots  of  the  larch,  then  Hiawatha 

Took  the  resin  of  the  fir  tree 

Smeared  therewith  each  seam  and  fissure, 

Made  each  crevice  safe  from  water. 

The  aborigine  paddled  this  frail  bark  so  skillfully  that  the 
noise  of  rowing  was  scarcely  audible  or  the  waves  visible. 
And  when  he  came  to  the  headwaters  of  the  stream  he  was 
able  to  raise  the  light  craft  above  his  head  and  follow  the 
dim  trail  across  the  lower  lying  hills  to  the  stream  beyond 
the  water-shed  leading  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  white  man,  profiting  by  the  Red  Man’s  experience 
learned  to  build  these  boats,  as  well  as  heavier  ones  of  logs 
and  timber  for  transporting  goods,  and  utilized  the  same 
trails  to  push  his  civilization  farther  into  the  unknown. 

Meagerness  of  Early  Roads. — In  the  “History  of 
Travel”  1 Mr.  Dunbar  quotes  from  a document  in  the  New 
York  Historical  Society’s  collection,  written  by  Benjamin 
Fletcher,  Governor  of  His  Majesty’s  Province  of  New  York, 
and  dated  1694,  which  shows  the  lack  of  roadways  or  even 
passable  trails  in  northern  New  York:  “It  is  impossible 
to  march  with  any  party  of  men  to  Canada  by  Land,  either 
in  winter  or  summer,  but  they  must  passe  a Considerable 
Part  of  ye  way  over  ye  Lake,  ye  land  on  each  side  being  ex- 
tream  steep  and  Rocky  mountains  or  els  a meer  cumbered 
with  underwood,  where  men  can  not  goe  upright,  but  must 
creep  throu  Bushes  for  whole  days’  marches,  and  im- 
possible for  horses  to  goe  at  any  time  of  ye  year.” 

The  same  author  quotes  from  a letter  by  Deputy  Gover- 
nor Hinkley  of  Plymouth  Colony,  about  1680,  asking  the 
English  Government  for  favors  because  this  Colony  was 
“the  first  that  broke  the  ice,  and  underwent  ye  brunt,  at 

‘“A  History  of  Travel,”  by  Seymour  Dunbar. 


36  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

our  own  charge,  for  the  enlargement  of  his  Majestie’s 
dominions  in  this  heretofore  most  howling  wilderness, 
amidst  wild  Indians  and  wild  beasts.” 

In  Massachusetts,2  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  stated  that 
while  communication  was  usually  by  water  one  writer 
boasts  that  “the  wild  and  uncouth  woods  were  filled  with 
frequented  ways  and  the  large  rivers  were  overlaid  with 
bridges,  passable  both  for  horse  and  foot.”  But  notwith- 
standing this  it  was  probably  not  before  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century  that  any  very  serious  attempts  were 
made  even  to  widen  the  trails  so  that  wagon  traffic  was 
possible.  In  17543  four  days  were  needed  to  go  from 
Boston  to  New  York  by  stage,  and  three  days  more  to  go  to 
Philadelphia.  Twelve  years  later  it  required  the  “Flying 
Machine”  two  days  to  make  the  trip  between  New  York 
and  Philadelphia. 

Settlement  Follows  Waterways;  Portages. — The  open- 
ing up  for  settlement  of  new  territory  necessitated  means 
of  communication.  That  near  waterways  was  most  easily 
reached  and  most  easily  kept  within  reach  of  older  settle- 
ments and  was,  therefore,  naturally  first  taken  up  and 
occupied.  To  penetrate  farther  the  interior  made  it  neces- 
sary to  cross  from  one  water  system  to  another.  As 
necessity  arose  the  trails  were  widened  into  roads  and  often 
at  these  portages  were  established  forts  and  villages  for 
protection  against  the  natives  and  to  facilitate  trade. 
Villages  grew  into  towns  and  towns  into  cities.  Portages 
became  known  and  were  talked  about  just  as  railroad  lines 
were  later.4  To  go  from  the  region  near  New  York  the 
Hudson  River  was  available  to  the  watershed  near  Lake 
George,  where  there  was  a 15-mile  portage  guarded  by 
Forts  Edward  on  the  Hudson  and  William  Henry  on  Lake 
George.  After  traversing  Lake  George  there  was  another 

3 ‘‘The  American  Nation,”  ‘‘England  in  America,”  by  L.  G. 
Tyler.  Vol.  IV,  p.  322. 

3 ‘‘American  Nation,”  Vol.  VIII,  p.  15. 

4 Cf . ‘ ‘ Historic  Highways  of  America,  ” by  A.  B.  Hurlbert,  and 
‘‘Basis  of  American  History”  (Vol.  II  of  ‘‘The  American  Nation”), 
by  L.  Farrand. 


MAP  OF  THE  NORTH-EASTERN  PORTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SHOWING 

PORTAGES 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  37 

portage  to  Lake  Champlain  guarded  by  Fort  Tieonderoga. 
These  names  are  often  mentioned  in  the  histories  of  the 
French  and  Indian  and  of  the  Revolutionary  wars. 

The  Oneida  portage,  leading  from  the  Mohawk,  a tribu- 
tary of  the  Hudson,  to  Wood  Creek  thence  by  the  Oswego 
River  furnished  a way  to  Ontario  and  the  other  Great 
Lakes.  A portage  around  Niagara  Falls  is  now  supplanted 
by  the  Welland  Canal. 

Lines  of  Travel. — To  reach  the  Ohio  Valley  travelers 
might  go  by  way  of  the  north  along  the  routes  just  mentioned 
to  the  Great  Lakes,  thence  to  the  interior  of  Ohio,  or  they 
could  leave  the  Mohawk  and  portage  across  to  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Allegheny.  The  Indians  gave  trouble  along 
these  lines,  so  a more  southerly  route  was  often  taken. 
Some  of  these,  commencing  on  the  north,  were:  Up  the 
Susquehanna  to  its  headwaters,  portage  to  one  or  the 
other  of  tributaries  which  flow  into  the  Allegheny  near 
Kittanning;  leave  the  Susquehanna  and  go  up  the  Juniata 
and  portage  over  to  the  Conemaugh,  thence  to  the  Alle- 
gheny— a course  partly  occupied  now  by  the  Pennsylvania 
railroad ; or,  by  way  of  the  Potomac,  and  Wills  Creek,  then 
across  the  Youghiogheny,  and  Monongahela.  Several  other 
trails  crossed  the  Alleghanies.  A trail  through  southern 
Pennsylvania  called  occasionally  Nemacolin’s  Path  after- 
ward formed  the  line  of  Braddock’s  Road,  hastily  con- 
structed for  military  purposes  during  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  and  over  which  Braddock’s  unfortunate  expe- 
dition traveled.  Still  farther  south  there  was  a well-known 
trail  often  followed  by  the  Cherokee  Indians,  by  trappers, 
hunters,  traders,  and  missionaries  desirous  of  reaching  the 
lands  beyond  the  mountains.  Skirting  the  north  end  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  range  the  traveler  followed  up  the  Shenandoah 
to  near  the  present  town  of  Staunton,  thence  across  the 
ridges  to  the  headwaters  of  the  James,  thence  to  upper 
tributaries  of  the  New  River,  then  by  crossing  a few  more 
ridges  to  the  Holston  River,  thence  into  the  bountiful 
hunting  grounds  of  Tennessee.  The  Cherokee  Indians  were 
jealous  of  this  territory  and  as  far  as  possible  kept  it 


38  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

closed  to  the  settler.  Therefore  the  country  beyond  the 
Alleghanies  was  not  well  known  to  the  Virginia  colonists, 
even  up  to  1800.  True,  records  of  Dougherty,  a trader, 
who  had  visited  the  Indian  tribes  in  this  region  as  early  as 
1690  were  known,  and  another  (Adair)  in  1730,  and  still 
others  after  1740.  Glowing  reports  were  brought  back  by 
the  few  traders,  hunters,  trappers,  and  occasional  talkative 
Indians,  who  had  visited  those  regions  of  magnificent 
rivers,  vast  woods,  and  extended  prairies.  The  wild  beasts 
with  which  this  fertile  country  abounded  were  likened  to 
the  leaves  on  the  trees,  they  were  so  abundant;  Even  the 
great  Ohio  River  was  but  a tributary  of  a larger  river  of 
which  they  had  no  definite  information.  The  trip,  in  the 
language  of  the  Indian,  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Holston 
(Hogo  higee)  to  the  Wabash  (Ohio)  required  for  its  per- 
formance “two  paddles,  two  warriors,  three  moons.”5 
These  glowing  descriptions  only  whetted  the  adventurous 
appetite  and  soon  such  hardy  pioneers  as  Daniel  Boone  and 
his  comrades  sought  this  territory  where  they  could  live 
near  to  nature  and  be  freed  from  high  taxes.  There  was 
also  a well-worn  trail  from  Philadelphia,  east  of  the 
Cherokee  (Shenandoah)  through  Virginia  to  the  Yadkin, 
from  which  travelers  could  diverge  at  various  points  and 
reach  the  Cherokee  trail  or  go  on  through  Cumberland 
Gap  farther  to  the  west. 

Trails  from  the  North. — Traders  from  Virginia  who 
reached  far  out  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  found  competi- 
tion from  those  who  came  down  by  one  of  the  several  routes 
from  the  Great  Lakes  or  up  from  the  lower  Mississippi.  A 
route  left  Lake  Erie  at  what  is  now  Cleveland,  passed  up 
the  Cuyahoga,  portaged  across  to  a tributary  of  the  Ohio, 
then  into  Kentucky;  another  left  the  Lake  at  Sandusky7, 
followed  the  Miami,  crossed  to  the  Scioto,  thence  down  to 
the  Ohio,  across  Kentucky  to  Cumberland  Gap,  sometimes 
called  the  Scioto  trail  and  farther  south  the  Warrior’s 
Trail. 

As  western  territory  settled,  trails  and  roads  became 

15  Ramsey ’s  ‘ ‘ Annals  of  Tennessee.  ’ ’ 


Transportation  Development  in  the  U nited  States  39 

more  numerous.  Readers  desiring  further  detailed  infor- 
mation are  referred  to  Hurlbert,  Thwaites,  Dunbar,  and 
Farrand.6  A few  other  routes,  however,  should  be  men- 
tioned on  account  of  the  importance  they  assumed  in  the 
settlement  of  the  nation. 

Boone’s  Trace,  or  The  Wilderness  Road. — This  road  is 
said  to  be  the  first  road  built  into  the  wilderness  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  settlement  and  development.  In 
the  late  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  no  uncom- 
mon thing  for  a railroad  to  precede  settlement,  but  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  roads  were,  in 
America,  made  largely  for  military  purposes  or  where 
demanded  by  the  traffic  of  earlier  settlement. 

Daniel  Boone,  the  noted  hunter  and  explorer,  had 
several  times  left  his  home  in  North  Carolina  to  hunt  and 
travel  in  the  wilds  of  Kentucky.  He  brought  back  to  the 
eastern  side  of  the  mountains  glowing  descriptions.  These 
excited  the  cupidity  of  a friend,  a judge  and  prominent 
citizen  of  North  Carolina,  James7  Henderson.  Henderson 
employed  Boone  to  confer  with  the  Cherokee  Indians  who 
claimed  this  territory  for  the  sale  of  their  rights.  Boone 
sought  out  the  Indians  and  by  means  now  unknown  got 
them  to  agree  to  sell.  The  fact  that  they  were  persuaded 
to  dispose  of  their  great  hunting  grounds  shows  what  in- 
fluence Boone  had  among  them.  It  has  been  intimated  that 
the  chiefs  realized  the  futility  of  further  fighting  the  white 
settler  or  that  the  Cherokees  felt  they  had  no  real  right  to 
this  land  as  it  had  been  rather  held  as  neutral  territory 

8 ‘ ‘ Historic  Highways  of  America,  ” by  A.  B.  Hurlbert,  16  volumes, 
1902-05,  A.  H.  Clark  Company,  Cleveland.  A series  of  annotated  re- 
prints of  some  of  the  best  contemporary  volumes  of  travel  in  America, 
compiled  by  Reuben  Gold  Thwaites,  1904-07,  32  volumes,  A.  H. 
Clark  Co.,  Cleveland. 

‘ ‘ A History  of  Travel  in  America,  ’ ’ by  Seymour  Dunbar,  4 
volumes,  1915,  Bobbs-Merrill  Company,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

‘ ‘ Basis  of  American  History,  ’ ’ Chapter  II,  ‘ ‘ Routes  of  Travel,  ’ ’ 
Vol.  II  of  the  American  Nation  Series,  by  Livingston  Farrand,  1907, 
Harper  & Brothers,  New  York.  There  is  good  bibliography  in  this 
volume. 

7 Cecil  B.  Hartley  in  his  “Life  of  Daniel  Boone,”  gives  the  name 
of  the  head  of  this  company  as  Colonel  Richard  Henderson. 


40  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

among  several  tribes.  However,  as  soon  as  they  had  given 
their  pledge  Boone  is  said  to  have  gone  immediately  to 
Henderson,  who  repaired  at  once  to  Port  Watauga  on  a 
branch  of  the  Holston  in  North  Carolina,  where  he  met 
1200  natives  in  council  and  completed  the  deal  in  the  name 
of  the  Transylvania  Company.  The  main  opposition  came 
from  an  eloquent  and  powerful  chief  named  Dragging 
Canoe,8  who  was  able  to  disrupt  proceedings  the  first  day. 
After  his  speech  the  council  broke  up  in  confusion.  The 
next  day,  however,  the  Indians  again  went  into  council  and 
the  treaty  was  ratified.  Estimates  of  the  price  paid  range 
from  “ten  wagon  loads  of  cheap  goods  and  whiskey,”  to 
“the  equivalent  of  ten  thousand  pounds  sterling,”  9 

As  soon  as  the  deal  was  consummated  Boone,  employed 
by  Henderson,  began  the  marking  and  cutting  out  of  a road 
from  Watauga,  North  Carolina,  to  Boonesborough,  Ken- 
tucky. The  party  numbered  about  forty  men,  consisting 
of  colored  men  to  care  for  the  camp  duties  and  the  neces- 
sary pack  animals  and  a body  of  woodsmen  with  axes. 
Boone  went  ahead  and  blazed  the  way  by  chopping  notches 
in  the  sides  of  trees  along  the  way,  the  axmen  following 
cleared  away  the  underbrush  and  felled  and  removed  such 
trees  as  stood  in  the  way.  However,  as  it  was  easier  to  de- 
tour than  to  chop,  usually  only  small  trees  were  cut.  It 
was  not  intended  that  this  should  be  a wagon  road,  as 
wagons  had  but  just  made  their  appearance  in  this  region. 
However,  it  was  to  be  an  easily  followed  way  for  future 
settlers.  In  Boone’s  Autobiography,  dictated  to  John 
Filson,  the  matter  of  the  road  is  referred  to  thus : 

After  the  conclusion  of  which  (a  campaign  against  the 
Sliawanese  Indians  which  Boone  commanded  by  order  of  Gov- 
ernor Dunmore),  the  militia  was  discharged  from  each  garrison, 
and  I,  being  relieved  from  my  post,  was  solicited  by  a number 
of  North  Carolina  gentlemen,  that  were  about  purchasing  the 
lands  lying  on  the  north  side  of  Kentucky  River,  from  the 

8 "The  Winning  of  the  West,”  Vol.  II,  by  Theodore  Roosevelt. 

9 Dunbar’s  ‘‘History  of  Travel,”  Vol.  I.  Roosevelt’s  ‘‘Winning 
of  the  West,”  Vol.  II. 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  41 


Cherokee  Indians,  to  attend  their  treaty  at  Wataga,  in  March, 
1755,  to  negotiate  with  them,  and  mention  the  boundaries  of  the 
purchase.  This  I accepted;  and,  at  the  request  of  the  same 
gentlemen,  undertook  to  mark  out  a road  in  the  best  passage 
from  the  settlement  through  the  wilderness  to  Kentucky,  with 
such  assistance  as  I thought  necessary  to  employ  for  such  an 
important  undertaking. 

I soon  began  this  work,  having  collected  a number  of  enter- 
prising men,  well  armed.  We  proceeded  with  all  possible  ex- 
pedition until  we  came  within  fifteen  miles  of  where  Boones- 
borough  now  stands,  and  where  we  were  fired  upon  by  a party 
of  Indians,  that  killed  two,  and  wounded  two  of  our  number; 
yet,  although  surprised  and  taken  at  a disadvantage,  we  stood 
our  ground.  This  was  the  20th  of  March,  1775.  Three  days 
after,  we  were  fired  upon  again,  and  had  two  men  killed  and 
three  wounded.  Afterwards  we  proceeded  on  to  Kentucky  River 
without  opposition;  and  on  the  1st  of  April  began  to  erect  the 
fort  of  Boonesborough  at  a salt  lick,  about  sixty  yards  from  the 
river  on  the  south  side. 

A letter  from  Captain  Boone  to  Colonel  Henderson  is 
quoted  by  Peck  in  his  life  of  Boone,  relating  to  this  same 
enterprise,  which  shows  the  dangerous  nature  of  the  work 
and  that  even  Boone  seemed  somewhat  worried  over  the 
matter : 

Dear  Colonel:  After  my  compliments  to  you,  I shall  acquaint 
you  with  our  misfortune.  On  March  the  25th  a party  of  Indians 
fired  on  my  company  about  half  an  hour  before  day,  and  killed 
Mr.  Twitty  and  his  negro,  and  wounded  Mr.  Walker  very  deeply 
but  I hope  he  will  recover. 

On  March  the  28th,  as  we  were  hunting  for  provisions,  we 
found  Samuel  Tate’s  son,  who  gave  us  an  account  that  the 
Indians  fired  on  their  camp  on  the  27th  day.  My  brother  and  I 
went  down  and  found  two  men  killed  and  scalped,  Thomas  Mc- 
Dowell and  Jeremiah  McPeters.  I have  sent  a man  down  to  all 
the  lower  companies  in  order  to  gather  them  all  to  the  mouth  of 
Otter  Creek.  My  advice  to  you,  sir,  is  to  come  or  send  as  soon 
as  possible.  Your  company  is  desired  greatly,  for  the  people 
are  very  uneasy,  but  are  willing  to  stay  and  venture  their  lives 
with  you;  and  now  is  the  time  to  flusterate  their  (the  Indians) 
intentions,  and  keep  the  country  whilst  we  are  in  it.  If  we  give 
way  to  them  now,  it  will  ever  be  the  case.  This  day  we  start 
from  the  battle-ground  for  the  mouth  of  Otter  Creek,  where  we 
will  immediately  erect  a fort,  which  will  be  done  before  you  can 


42  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

come  or  send ; then  we  can  send  ten  men  to  meet  you  if  you  send 
for  them. 

I am  sir,  your  most  obedient, 

Daniel  Boone. 

N.  B. — We  stood  on  the  ground  and  guarded  our  baggage  till 
day,  and  lost  nothing.  We  have  about  fifteen  miles  to  Cantuck 
at  Otter  Creek. 

The  road  began  “at  the  settlements,”  which  were  prob- 
ably in  what  are  now  Sullivan  and  Hawkins  counties. 
Tennessee,  but  mostly  along  the  Watauga  River,  then 
thought  to  be  a part  of  Virginia.  The  road  was  a continua- 
tion of  the  Cherokee  trail  through  the  mountains.  This 
trail  served  the  great  migration  following  the  Revolution- 
ary War  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  From  the  settle- 
ments there  is  a westerly  course  to  the  Holston  River  at 
Long  Island  near  the  site  of  old  Long  Island  Fort  con- 
structed by  Colonel  Bird  to  winter  his  army  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War  in  1758.  At  this  place  he  received 
some  reinforcements  and  then  continued  in  a generally 
westward  direction  through  country  he  was  more  or  less 
familiar  with  to  the  Clinch  River,  then  across  the  ridge  to 
the  Powell  River,  and  finally  to  Cumberland  Gap,  through 
which  he  entered  the  land  of  “Kentucke.  ” Here  he 
arrived  at  the  Warrior’s  Trail  leading  northward,  so 
called  because  Kentucky  had  been  a sort  of  neutral  hunt- 
ing grounds  of  the  Indians  from  the  North,  the  Miamis, 
Shawnees,  Wyandots,  and  others  and  of  the  Cherokees, 
Creeks,  Catawbas,  and  others,  from  the  South.  Never- 
theless the  Indians  from  the  South  habitually  crossed 
over  and  fought  those  from  the  North  and  vice  versa, 
hence  a large  and  much  frequented  trail. 

Boone  appropriated  this  native  route  for  a distance  of 
about  50  miles  to  near  the  present  town  of  Manchester  in 
Clay  County.  Here  he  found  a “street”  made  by  the 
buffalo,  which  were  wont  to  travel  through  the  cane-brakes 
about  five  or  six  abreast,  thus  with  their  thousands  of  hoofs 
breaking  and  hardening  a way  wide  enough  for  a team 
and  wagon.  Turning  west  he  followed  the  bisons’  street 


MAP  SHOWING  MAIN  HIGHWAYS  AND  WATERWAYS  IN  UNITED  STATES'  ABOUT  1830 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  43 

to  Rock  Castle  River,  then  turned  northward  again  to  the 
Kentucky  River  and  the  site  of  Boonesborough.  A fort 
was  here  erected  by  placing  stout  log  cabins  with  heavy 
stockades  between  about  a rectangular  space  some  150  x 260 
feet.  A pair  of  strong  -wooden  gates  furnished  ingress  and 
egress.  Several  times  was  this  fort  attacked  by  Indians,  the 
last  time  in  1778,  by  nearly  500  warriors,  but  always,  be* 
cause  of  the  block  houses  at  the  corners  with  their  loop- 
holes and  the  heavy  barricades,  also  with  loop  holes,  they 
were  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  and  finally  repulse  the 
Indians. 

The  first  legislature  of  the  Transylvania  Republic,  as 
Henderson’s  scheme  came  to  be  known,  was  held  here. 
Boone  was  a member,  as  was  Harrod  from  Harrodstown, 
and  other  early  settlers  of  Kentucky. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  highway  and  blockhouse 
fort  were  of  great  assistance  in  settling  and  developing  the 
country  of  Kentucke. 

Calk’s  Diary. — One  of  the  first  parties  to  make  use  of 
Boone’s  Trace  was  that  of  Henderson  in  response  to 
Boone’s  letter  heretofore  quoted.  A naive  diary  kept  by 
one  of  its  members,  William  Calk,  is  still  in  existence.  It 
has  been  made  available  by  the  publications  of  the  Filson 
Club.  Speed 10  and  Dunbar 11  quote  it  extensively. 
Theodore  (afterward  President)  Roosevelt 12  says  “the 
writer’s  mind  was  evidently  as  vigorous  as  his  language 
was  terse  and  untrammeled.”  While  spelling,  capitaliza- 
tion, and  punctuation  may  not  conform  to  the  best  modern 
style  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  those  early  days  there 
were  no  public  schools.  A few  private  schools  were  taught 
by  more  or  less  shiftless  school  teachers,  but  the  man  who 
could  read  and  write  at  all  was  fortunate.  Boone’s  school- 
ing, of  a very  meager  nature,  closed  when  he  and  some  of 
his  schoolmates  exchanged  the  teacher’s  whisky  bottle  for 
a similar  one  doped  with  tartar  emetic.  The  sick  teacher 

““The  Wilderness  Road.” 

11  “ A History  of  Travel  in  America.  ’ ’ 

““Winning  of  the  West.” 


44  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

made  a “rough  house”  with  Boone  and  his  companions  but 
was  finally  knocked  down  and  the  school  dismissed. 

To  return  to  William  Calk’s  diary.  It  is  a sort  of  log 
or  running  account  of  the  trip  and  events  from  day  to 
day  as  they  impressed  him,  from  its  beginning  March  13, 
1775,  in  Prince  William  County,  Virginia,  till  he  arrives  at 
Boonesborough.  It  is  certainly  a very  good  commentary 
on  the  early  travel  conditions.  A few  of  the  entries  are: 

1775,  Mon.  13th — I set  out  from  prince  wm.  to  travel  to  Cain- 
tuck  on  tursday  Night  our  company  all  got  together  at  Mr. 
Priges  on  rapadon  which  was  Abraham  hanks  phipip  Drake 
Eanock  Smith  Robert  Whitledge  and  myself  thiar  Abrahms  Dogs 
leg  got  broke  by  Drakes  Dog. 

Wednesday,  15th — We  started  early  from  priges  made  a good 
days  travel  and  lodge  this  night  at  Mr.  Cars  on  North  fork  James 
River. 

So  he  continues  with  his  daily  items.  It  may  be  interest- 
ing to  note  that 

Wedns  22nd — We  start  early  and  git  to  foart  Chissel  whear 
we  git  some  good  loaf  bread  and  good  whiskey. 

On  “fry day  24th”  they  turned  out  of  the  main  wagon 
road  in  order  to  go  to  “Danil  Smiths”  on  the  Clinch 
River,  where  they  arrived  Saturday  evening  and  very  hard 
traveling  they  found  it  through  the  mountains.  Those 
who  have  had  experience  with  pack  animals  in  the  timber 
will  relish  this  incident  which  occurred  soon  after  the  few 
days’  sojourn  at  Smith’s. 

Thusd  30th — We  set  out  again  and  went  down  to  Elk  gardin 
and  there  suplid  our  Selves  With  Seed  Corn  and  irish  tators 
then  we  went  on  a little  way  I turned  my  hors  to  drive  before 
me  and  he  got  scard  ran  away  threw  Down  the  Saddle  Bags 
and  broke  three  of  our  powder  goards  and  Abrams  beast  Burst 
open  a walet  of  com  and  lost  a good  Deal  and  made  a turrable 
flustration  amongst  the  Reast  of  the  Horses  Drakes  mair  run 
against  a sapling  and  nocht  it  down  we  cacht  them  all  again  and 
went  on  and  loged  at  John  Duncans. 

They  “suplyed”  themselves  with  bacon  and  meal  at 
“Dunkan’s.”  This  was  their  last  chance  to  get  provisions 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  45 

other  than  the  game  afforded  by  the  country.  They  found 
this  a “verey  Bad  hilley  way.”  Were  mired  in  the  mud, 
fell  in  the  water  and  got  their  loads  wet.  Since  they  turned 
off  to  go  to  Smith’s  they  had  been  traveling  unbroken  or 
dim  trails;  on  “mond  3rd”  after  traveling  the  woods  with- 
out any  track  they  “git  into  hendersons  Road,”  that  is  the 
trail  which  Boone  had  recently  blazed  for  the  Transylvania 
Company.  On  “Tuesday  4th”  they  overtook  “Col.  hen- 
derson  and  his  company  Bound  for  Caintuck,”  at  Capt. 
Martin’s  where  “they  were  Broiling  and  Eating  Beef  with- 
out Bread.”  They  now  formed  a company  of  about  “40 
men  and  some  neagros.  ’ ’ 

Saturday  8th — We  all  pack  up  and  started  crost  Cumberland 
gap  about  one  oclock  this  Day  Met  a good  many  peopel  turned 
back  for  fear  of  the  indians  but  our  Company  goes  on  Still  with 
good  courage. 

News  of  the  depredations  of  the  Indians  frightened 
many  and  caused  them  to  turn  back.  The  Henderson  party 
were  able  to  pursuade  some  of  these  to  remain.  On  the 
9th  they  met  ‘ ‘ another  Companey  going  Back  they  tell  such 
News  abram  and  Drake  is  afraid  to  go  aney  farther  there 
we  camp  this  night.” 

However,  after  many  hardships,  swollen  streams  over 
which  they  must  sometimes  swim  their  horses,  “obliged  to 
toat”  the  packs  over  themselves,  they  arrived  at  their 
destination.  Once  ‘ ‘ Abrams  mair  Ran  into  the  River  with 
her  load  and  swam  over”  he  followed  her  and  “got  on  her 
and  made  her  swim  back  again.  ’ ’ He  mentions  occasionally 
Killing  game:  one  “Eavening  two  Deer,”  another  day  a 
“beef,”  and  again  “2  bofelos.”  The  writer  was  evidently 
disgusted  with  the  uncleanly  and  unsanitary  Drake,  whose 
dog  is  mentioned  in  the  first  entry,  for  he  notes  that  ‘ ‘ Mr. 
Drake  Bakes  Bread  without  washing  his  hands,”  which 
evidently  was  unusual  in  even  these  frontier  times. 

After  arriving  at  “Boones  foart”  they  drew  “for  chois 
of  lots;”  some  as  will  always  happen  were  dissatisfied. 
This  small  company,  however,  must  have  decided  to  accept 
the  verdict  of  chance  for  Calk  writes : 


46  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

Wednesday  26th — We  Begin  Building  us  a house  and  a plaise 
of  Defense  to  Keep  the  indians  off  this  day  we  begin  to  live  with- 
out bread. 

Satterday  29th — We  git  our  house  Kivered  with  Bark  and 
move  our  things  into  it  at  Night  and  Bigin  houseKeeping 
Eanoek  Smith  Robert  Whitledge  and  myself. 

Thus  ends  this  interesting  journal  kept  under  difficult 
conditions  when  ordinary  men  would  have  considered  it 
useless  labor  to  make  such  a record.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  Boone’s  Wilderness  Road  and  Boone’s  Fort  were  both 
very  instrumental  in  the  settlement  of  Kentucky  and  Ten- 
nessee. The  territory  of  Kentucky  was  separated  from 
Virginia  in  1786  and  admitted  to  the  union  as  a state  in 
1790,  when  it  had  a population,  by  U.  S.  Census,  of  73,077. 

Marquette’s  Explorations. — Religious  devotion  and  zeal 
has  done  much  for  the  settlement  of  North  America : the 
Puritans  in  New  England,  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania, 
the  Catholics  in  Maryland  and  Canada,  and  very  much 
later  the  Mormons  in  Utah  are  familiar  examples.  A 
French  Jesuit  missionary,  Jacques  Marquette,  who  with 
another,  Claude  Bablon,  had  founded  (1668)  a settlement 
at  St.  Mary’s  on  the  falls  between  Lakes  Superior  and 
Huron,  said  to  be  the  first  French  settlement  within  the 
present  boundaries  of  the  United  States,  had  made  friends 
with  the  Illinois  Indians  and  learned  their  language.  He 
also  collected  the  remains  of  the  Huron  tribes  at  St.  Ignaee 
and  established  a mission  there  (1671).  Marquette  had 
heard  from  the  Indians  many  tales  of  the  Great  river  to  the 
west,  and  decided  to  explore  the  region  along  its  borders, 
despite  their  assertion  of  great  dangers,  that  its  warriors 
never  spared  the  stranger,  and  that  monsters  would  de- 
vour both  men  and  canoes.  Traveling  with  his  company 
up  the  Fox  River  from  Green  Bay  he  crossed  the  portage, 
which  still  retains  the  name  “Portage,”  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  Wisconsin.  With  the  explorer  Joliet  and  five  sub- 
ordinates as  companions,  he  boldly  embarked  upon  the 
Wisconsin  and  floated  down  its  course,  knowing  not  where 
it  would  lead  nor  what  dangers  might  be  in  store.  After 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  47 


seven  days  of  solitary  travel  they  floated  with  inexpressible 
joy  on  the  broad  bosom  of  the  Mississippi,  June  17,  1673. 
They  continued  their  lonely  voyage  along  its  placid  waters 
until  they  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Moingona,  where  were 
seen  evidences  of  habitation.  Fourteen  miles  in  the  in- 
terior was  a native  village.  They  said  they  were  received 
most  friendly  with  a calumet,  invited  into  their  dwellings, 
and  feasted.  They  explained  their  religious  doctrines  and 
were  sent  away  with  the  gift  of  a calumet  or  peace  pipe 
embellished  with  the  heads  and  necks  of  various  colored 
bright  and  beautiful  birds. 

They  sailed  along  their  solitary  way  and  were  soon  re- 
warded by  hearing  the  rush  of  the  swifter,  more  turbulent, 
muddy  waters  of  the  Missouri,  which  seemed  from  thereon 
to  enhance  the  speed  of  the  current.  They  went  on  past 
the  mouths  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Arkansas,  where  they  found 
savages  who  spoke  a new  tongue  and  were  armed  with  guns, 
proof  that  they  had  trafficked  with  the  Spaniards  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  with  the  English  from  Virginia.  These 
exhibiting  hostility  which  was  only  allayed  by  the  peace 
pipe,  they  retreated  and  sailed  back  up  the  river.  When 
Marquette  reached  the  Illinois  he  entered  and  ascended  that 
river  where  he  beheld  the  magnificent  fertility  and  color- 
ing inuring  to  the  late  summer  and  early  autumn  of  the 
extensive  plains  and  vast  wooded  tracts  of  Illinois.  An  easy 
portage  brought  him  to  the  Chicago  River,  a short  stream 
whose  waters  are  now  reversed  and  flow  into  the  Illinois. 
Some  authorities  claim  Marquette  to  have  been  the  first 
white  man  to  set  foot  upon  the  site  of  Chicago  (1673). 
Others  13  state  that  the  French  Jesuit  Nicholas  Perrot  and 
his  party  of  fur  traders  pitched  their  tent  on  its  prairies 
the  latter  part  of  1669. 

To  Marquette,  however,  belongs  the  honor  of  discovering 
two  very  important  routes  to  the  Mississippi  Valley;  the 
one  by  way  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  Rivers,  and  the  other 
by  way  of  the  Illinois.  Unfortunately  the  hardships  of 
this  journey  undermined  his  health  and  the  next  year 

13  Henry  Howe. 


48  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

(1674)  a half  hour  after  he  had  retired  for  devotion  to  a 
small  altar  of  stones  on  the  banks  of  a little  stream  now 
called  by  his  name,  he  was  found  dead.  Thus  judged  by 
the  extent  and  value  of  the  territory  traversed,  passed 
away,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-one,  one  of  our  country’s 
greatest  explorers. 

The  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition. — Another  explor- 
ing expedition  sought  a path  to  extend  the  commerce  of 
the  United  States  in  the  far  Oregon  country.  The  great 
Rocky  Mountain  ranges  precluded  direct  approach.  The 
idea  had  evidently  fastened  itself  upon  Thomas  Jefferson, 
even  before  he  became  president,  that  the  Missouri  River 
might  be  made  the  highway  across  the  continent,  and  that 
trade  and  commerce  thus  engendered  would  inure  to  the 
benefit  of  the  country.  Also  being  a highly  educated  man, 
he  was  deeply  interested  in  extending  the  geographical  and 
biological  knowledge  of  this  vast  region  even  though  no 
remuneration  to  the  nation  might  come  therefrom.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  possible,  he  desired  to  secure  the  territories 
beyond  the  Rockies  as  a part  of  the  country,  but  he  was 
too  shrewd  to  make  plain  statements  to  that  effect.  His 
shrewdness  and  the  business  sagacity  of  Livingston, 
minister  to  France,  coupled  with  the  financial  straits  of 
Napoleon  resulted  in  obtaining  an  extensive  portion  of  the 
country  without  which  the  United  States  could  not  have 
developed  into  a strong  well-bound  nation  reaching  from 
coast  to  coast.  Whether  Mr.  Jefferson  would  have  at- 
tempted to  take  this  country  by  force  matters  not  now. 
The  fact  that  the  Lewis  and  Clark  military  expedition  was 
ready  to  start  almost  as  soon  as  the  purchase  was  made, 
lends  suspicion  to  that  idea.  The  nomination  of  Monroe  to 
be  Minister  to  France,  the  man  whom  Jefferson  expected 
to  conduct  the  Louisiana  negotiations,  and  who  arrived  in 
France  just  in  time  to  see  them  completed  by  Livingston, 
was  made  January  11,  1803 ; while  the  message  proposing 
the  expedition  was  submitted  January  18;  the  treaty  of 
cession  for  the  purchase  was  signed  May  2;  and  during 
that  same  month  the  expedition  which  had  previously  or- 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  49 


ganized  left  its  winter  quarters  about  a day’s  journey  from 
St.  Louis,  and  proceeded  up  the  Missouri  River.  The  ex- 
pedition consisted  of  forty-five  persons  in  three  boats,  one 
a flat  boat  decked  over  at  the  ends  and  two  pirogues  14 
together  with  a number  of  horses  which  were  to  be  driven 
along  the  bank  for  the  use  of  the  hunters.  The  personnel 
consisted  of  the  two  officers,  Captain  Meriwether  Lewis  and 
Lieutenant  (by  courtesy  Captain)  William  Clark,  both  of 
whom  were  from  families  already  distinguished  in  border 
service ; twenty-seven  men  who  expected  to  make  the  entire 
journey ; seven  soldiers  and  nine  voyageurs  who  were  to  go 
only  to  the  Mandan  villages  of  the  Missouri,  where  the 
party  would  winter.  Of  the  twenty-seven  permanent  mem- 
bers one  was  a half-breed  hunter  who  would  also  act  as 
interpreter,  two  were  French  voyageurs,  and  one  a negro 
servant  of  Clark.  All,  except  the  black  slave,  were  enlisted 
in  the  army  that  discipline  might  be  secured.  Their  prog- 
ress was  necessarily  slow  and  a full  account  of  it  reads  like 
a romance.  They  of  course  had  to  live  off  the  country  as 
they  proceeded.  There  was  no  roadway  along  the  river, 
often  the  brush  was  thick  and  the  grass  high;  the  river 
with  its  turbulent  waters,  snags,  and  sand  bars  made  navi- 
gation difficult ; flies  and  mosquitoes,  those  pests  of  bottom 
and  marshy  land,  were  abundant.  They  had  some  trouble 
with  the  Sioux  Indians,  but  Captains  Lewis  and  Clark  were 
evidently  able  to  cope  with  them  successfully.  They 
reached  a point  near  the  present  site  of  Bismarck,  N.D., 
that  summer.  This  region  was  occupied  by  the  Mandan 
Indians,  who  lived  in  villages  of  rather  permanent 
character.  Among  these  they  found  some  who  had  traveled 
far  toward  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri.  One  woman, 
known  as  the  Bird  Woman,  was  especially  helpful  to  them. 
She  had  been  captured  some  time  previously  from  a moun- 
tain tribe  and  according  to  Indian  custom  married  to  one 
of  their  own  number,  a half  breed.  During  the  stay  at 

14  A pirogue  proper  is  a canoe  dug  out  of  a single  log.  These  may 
have  been  and  probably  were  keel  boats  built  of  timber  and  the 
name  pirogue  extended  to  them  colloquially. 


50  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

winter  quarters,  in  addition  to  writing  up  their  journals 
and  records  very  carefully,  they  cultivated  the  acquaint- 
ance of  this  woman.  She,  with  her  half  breed  husband 
and  small  child,  accompanied  the  expedition  when  it  be- 
gan its  onward  journey  in  the  spring  of  1805.  There  was 
real  need  for  them  not  only  to  act  as  guides  and  inter- 
preters, but  to  replace  those  who  had  been  sent  back  down 
the  river  with  reports  of  the  progress  and  observations  of 
the  expedition  up  to  this  time.  Part  of  the  duties  of  the 
expedition,  as  heretofore  intimated,  was  to  note  the 
character  and  productivity  of  the  land,  as  well  as  the  nature 
and  number  of  Indians  found  and  general  information  con- 
cerning them  and  their  mode  of  living. 

When  the  falls  of  the  Missouri  were  reached  there  seemed 
to  be  an  impasse.  But  from  logs  and  other  timbers  found 
there  they  constructed  a crude  wagon  on  which  their  sup- 
plies and  equipment  were  transported  to  the  river  above. 
They  had  brought  with  them  the  iron  framework  of  a 
smaller  boat  than  those  used  heretofore  with  the  idea  of 
covering  it  with  stretched  skins.  They  found  difficulty, 
however,  in  getting  it  watertight.  They  attempted  to  get 
pitch  by  heating  pine  tree  trunks  but  were  again  unsuc- 
cessful. They  resorted  finally  to  a combination  of  pow- 
dered charcoal,  beeswax,  and  buffalo  tallow — practically 
natural  products  of  the  land.  The  boat  floated  nicely  and 
they  were  greatly  encouraged  but  when  it  was  taken  from 
the  water  the  mixture  dropped  off  and  the  seams  opened 
up.  Lewis  finally  gave  up  the  attempt  and  buried  the 
framework  and  built  canoes  according  to  the  Indian 
fashion.  In  passing  up  they  came  to  forks  in  the  river  and 
were  often  at  a loss  which  to  take.  By  conference  with  the 
Indian  woman  and  reports  of  scouts  sent  ahead  they  were 
usually  fortunate  in  choosing  the  right  course.  Being  ex- 
plorers of  a new  country  they  assigned  names  to  the  rivers 
as  they  discovered  them.  At  three  forks,  they  called  the 
rivers,  Gallatin,  Madison,  and  Jefferson,  names  which  they 
still  retain.  Three  branches  of  the  Jefferson  were  Phi- 
losophy, Philanthropy,  and  Wisdom;  these  names  have  not 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  51 

remained — probably  they  were  too  fanciful — the  Philan- 
thropy is  now  the  odoriferous  Stinking  Water. 

They  followed  up  the  Jefferson  until  it  became  too 
shallow  and  precipitous  to  navigate  longer.  Lewis  started 
out  overland  into  the  interior  hoping  to  find  an  Indian 
habitation  and  someone  who  would  guide  him  to  waters 
flowing  Pacificward.  Game,  which  had  been  very  abun- 
dant practically  all  the  way,  was  here  scarce  and  the  com- 
pany were  often  hungry,  and  very  likely  despondent. 
After  arduous  and  weary  wandering  Lewis  came  across 
an  old  Indian  woman  and  some  girls.  They  were  afraid 
of  him  and  bowed  their  heads  for  execution.  Instead  he 
gave  them  trinkets  and  face  paint.  The  men  of  the  tribe 
having  come  up  he  with  difficulty  persuaded  them  to  go 
with  him  to  the  river  where  the  “Bird  Woman”  who  had 
come  with  them  from  the  Mandan  village  was  recognized 
as  the  sister  of  the  chief  of  the  band  with  which  Lewis  had 
fortunately  come  in  contact. 

Their  food  up  to  this  time,  which  was  mostly  meat,  was 
easily  supplied  from  the  numerous  herds  of  buffalo,  elk, 
deer,  and  antelope;  from  flocks  of  wild  fowl,  and  prairie 
chickens ; and  from  several  varieties  of  fish  found  in  the 
waters.  ‘ ‘ On  the  return  voyage,  when  Clark  was  descend- 
ing the  Yellowstone  River,  a vast  herd  of  buffalo,  swimming 
and  wading,  plowed  its  way  across  the  stream  where  it 
was  a mile  wide,  in  a column  so  thick  that  explorers  had 
to  draw  up  on  shore  and  wait  for  an  hour,  until  it  passed 
by,  before  continuing  their  journey.”15  They  frequently 
found  hungry  wolves,  grizzly  bears,  and  rattlesnakes 
which  gave  them  more  or  less  trouble,  but  they  complained 
mostly  of  the  mosquitoes. 

But  now  having  left  the  open  country  they  found  game 
very  scarce.  The  Indians  occasionally  brought  them  a Rocky 
Mountain  sheep  but  they  themselves  claim  never  to  have 
seen  one  alive.  After  a short  exploration  in  the  region  of 
the  headwaters  of  the  Jefferson  they  decided  to  continue 
toward  the  west.  So  purchasing  ponies  from  the  Indians 

““The  Winning  of  the  West,”  Vol.  VI,  by  Theodore  Eoosevelt. 


52  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

and  cacheing  most  of  their  goods  went  on  until  the  rivers 
were  again  passable  for  boats,  where  making  new  canoes 
they  again  took  to  the  waters  and  voyaged  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia.  Hunger  harassed  them,  while  rapids  and 
whirlpools  made  their  downward  travel  very  disagreeable. 
The  Indians  on  the  lower  reaches  were  generally  friendly 
but  their  food  consisted  largely  of  dog  meat,  which  at  first 
was  nauseating;  however,  after  awhile  they  became  recon- 
ciled to  the  Indians’  favorite  dish. 

The  party  wintered  on  the  coast  at  a post  they  named 
Fort  Clatsch.  The  damp  winds  here  were  cold  and  raw 
and  to  persons  used  to  active  outdoor  life  the  winter’s  en- 
forced idleness  cloyed,  and  they  were  glad  when  spring 
came  and  they  could  turn  back.  The  streams  toward  the 
mountains  are  very  swift  so  much  of  the  return  journey  to 
the  place  where  they  had  left  their  horses  with  the  Nez 
Perce  Indians  had  to  be  made  on  foot.  Upon  again  secur- 
ing their  horses  they  separated  at  the  top  of  the  divide, 
Lewis  returning  by  way  of  the  Missouri  and  Clark  going 
by  way  of  the  Yellowstone.  Clark  for  a portion  of  the 
way  subdivided  his  party  in  order  that  the  maximum  terri- 
tory might  be  explored.  They  met  again  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone  and  concluded  their  expe- 
dition at  St.  Louis,  September  23,  1806.  Thus  ended  a 
marvelous  journey  of  three  and  a third  years  through  a 
wilderness  beset  with  many  dangers,  inhabited  by  savage 
tribes,  venomous  reptiles,  and  ferocious  beasts ; but  a 
wilderness  on  the  whole  extremely  friendly,  abounding  in 
succulent  vegetation  and  edible  game,  and  endowed  with  a 
healthful  and  invigorating  climate.  During  all  this  time, 
notwithstanding  hardships  and  exposures,  one  man  only 
had  died,  one  had  deserted  and  not  more  than  two  Indians 
had  been  killed. 16  To  Lewis  and  Clark  for  their  ability 
to  handle  men,  for  their  courage,  and  fidelity  should  be 
given  much  praise. 

Upon  the  report  of  this  expedition  being  made  public 

16  Cf.  “Winning  of  the  West,”  Vol.  VI,  p.  259;  and  “The 
American  Nation,”  Vol.  XII,  p.  94. 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  53 


very  many  hunters,  trappers  and  fur  traders  came  to  the 
lands  beyond  the  Missouri.  These  in  turn  were  followed  by 
bona-fide  settlers.  Soon  this  country  was  furnishing  sup- 
plies for  those  farther  east,  the  great  rivers  Missouri,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Ohio  being  busy  routes  of  internal  commerce. 
As  a result  of  Lewis  and  Clark’s  labors  the  United  States 
was  able  to  lay  claim  to  the  Oregon  country  some  years 
later.  The  door  was  opened  for  the  development  of  a vast 
empire  with  versatile  resources  far  beyond  the  fabled  riches 
of  the  far  east. 

Transcontinental  Trails. — Following  the  purchase  of  the 
Louisiana  territory  there  was,  of  course,  an  extension  of 
settlement  to  the  prairies  beyond  the  Missouri.  The  State 
of  Missouri  was  early  occupied  and  became  a state  in  1821, 
but  it  was  many  years  later  before  other  portions  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  were  sufficiently  settled  to  become  ter- 
ritories.17 The  settlement  of  these  lands,  together  with 
the  opening  up  of  Oregon  and  later  California  with 
its  great  gold  rush,  created  a demand  for  transconti- 
nental roads.  The  mountain  ranges  were  searched  for 
passes,  possibly  not  so  much  for  the  purposes  of  settlement 
as  means  for  going  to  and  coming  from  fur  trading  posts 
which  large  companies  established  throughout  the  whole 
Rocky  Mountain  region.  St.  Louis  became  the  greatest 
fur  center  in  the  world,  a position  which  she  probably  holds 


17  State 

Settled 

Admitted  a 
Territory 

Admitted  a 
State 

Missouri 

1755 

1812 

1821 

Arkansas 

1685 

1819 

1836 

Kansas 

1854 

1854 

1861 

Nebraska 

1847 

1854 

1867 

North  Dakota 

1812 

1861 

1889 

South  Dakota 

1859 

1861 

1889 

Wyoming 

1834 

1868 

1890 

Colorado 

1859 

1861 

1876 

Idaho 

1852 

1863 

1890 

Montana 

1861 

1864 

1889 

Iowa 

1833 

1838 

1846 

Minnesota 

1846 

1849 

1858 

54  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

still.18  Provost,  leader  of  a detachment  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Fur  Company  (Wm.  H.  Ashley,  of  Virginia, 
founder),  found  the  South  Pass  by  way  of  the  Sweetwater 
branch  of  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte  River,  1823.  This 
pass  held  preeminence  as  a crossing  through  the  Rockies 
to  the  great  interior  basin  and  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Al- 
ready has  been  mentioned  the  crossing  of  Lewis  and  Clark 
in  the  North.  Bridger  discovered  the  pass  in  Southern 
Wyoming  bearing  his  name,  about  1824.  This  defile  though 
wide  enough  for  an  army  to  pass  through  seems  narrow  be- 
cause of  its  lateral  walls  of  red  granite  and  metamorpliic 
sandstone  extending  almost  perpendicularly  from  1000  to 
25,000  feet.  The  overland  mail  route  prior  to  the  building 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  was  through  this  pass. 
Jedediah  Smith,  who  succeeded  Ashley  as  head  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Fur  Company,  explored  practically  all 
the  region  from  Great  Salt  Lake  to  the  Pacific,  and  from 
San  Diego  to  the  upper  Columbia  River  in  Canada.  To 
him  is  the  world  indebted  for  its  first  knowledge  of  much 
of  the  vast  region  west  of  Salt  Lake  as  by  other  active 
members  of  this  company  was  revealed  the  sources  of  the 
Platte,  the  Yellowstone,  the  Green  and  the  Snake  Rivers, 
and  possible  routes  through  the  almost  impassable  moun- 
tains drained  by  them.  New  England  was  especially  in- 
terested in  the  Oregon  country  and  through  men  from  there 
the  Humboldt  River  route  was  discovered. 

During  this  same  period  there  were  being  opened  up 
trade  and  trade  routes  with  the  Spanish  possessions  farther 
south.  In  1822  a wagon  train  was  taken  from  Missouri 
to  Santa  Fe  by  a man  named  Beckwith  to  trade  for  horses 
and  mules,  and  trap  along  the  way.  For  years  St.  Louis 
was  headquarters  for  many  overland  traders  to  these 
regions,  taking  to  them  cloths  and  other  manufactured 
goods  and  bringing  back  furs,  silver,  mules,  and  horses. 

The  Oregon  Trail,  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  the  Spanish 

18  Reports  for  1920  show  that  New  York  has  exceeded  St.  Louis 
in  manufactured  furs  but  St.  Louis  seems  still  to  be  the  largest 
market  for  raw  furs. 


TRANSCONTINENTAL  TRAILS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  55 

Trail  and  the  Gila  Route,  had  become  quite  well  known  by 
the  early  ’thirties  and  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  in  ’forty-nine  carried  many  people  and  much 
traffic  across  the  continent. 

Origin  of  the  Oregon  Trail. — At  Bellevue  the  Nebraska 
State  Historical  Society  erected,  June  23,  1910,  a monu- 
ment a part  of  the  inscription  on  which  reads : 

Commemorative  of  the  Astorian  Expedition  organized  June  23, 
1810,  by  John  Jacob  Astor’s  American  Fur  Company.  This  Expedi- 
tion discovered  the  Oregon  Trail  which  spread  knowledge  of  the 
Nebraska  country  leading  to  its  occupancy  by  white  people. 

John  Jacob  Astor’s  purpose  in  organizing  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company,  a subsidiary  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  was 
to  establish  himself  and  American  control  in  the  already 
disputed  Oregon  country.19  As  a result  two  expeditions 
were  fitted  out  to  go  to  and  establish  trading  posts  in 
Oregon  with  a central  control  or  main  post  at  Astoria. 
One  of  these  expeditions  went  by  water  around  Cape  Horn 
to  “carry  out  the  people,  stores,  ammunition  and  merchan- 
dise, requisite  for  establishing  a fortified  trading  post  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  ’ ’ The  other  ‘ ‘ conducted 
by  Mr.  Hunt,  was  to  proceed  up  the  Missouri,  and  across 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  the  same  point : exploring  a line 
of  communication  across  the  continent,  and  noting  the 
place  where  interior  trading  posts  might  be  established.  ’ ’ 20 

The  overland  expedition,  consisting  of  about  sixty  men 
with  four  boats  left  their  winter  quarters  in  Missouri  and 
proceeded  up  the  river  in  the  spring  of  1811.  They  de- 
viated somewhat  from  Lewis  and  Clark’s  route  by  leaving 
the  Missouri  River  at  the  mouth  of  the  Grand  River,  near 
where  the  Pacific  extension  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul  railroad  crosses.  They  seem  to  have  gone  across 
the  country  north  of  the  Black  Hills  into  Wyoming  to  the 
Wind  River  and  Wind  Mountains  south  of  the  Yellowstone 
Park,  using  present-day  terms  for  locations ; thence  a short 

“Albert  Watkins  in  “Collections  of  the  Nebraska  State  Historical 
Society.”  Yol.  XVI,  p.  22. 

“Washington  Irving’s  “Astoria.” 


56  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 


distance  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Snake  River,  a part  of 
the  Lewis  and  Clark  route,  which  with  some  deviations  they 
followed  to  the  Columbia.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia 
they  met  the  sea  party,  and  on  July  28,  1812,  a party  of  six 
men  started  back  with  dispatches.  They  wintered  near 
Scott’s  Bluff,  Nebraska,  having  crossed  the  mountains  sub- 
stantially along  the  line  afterwards  known  as  the  Oregon 
Trail.  In  the  spring  of  1813  they  continued  down  the 
Platte  to  the  Missouri.  This  trip  proved  the  possibility  of 
a direct  route  avoiding  the  long  roundabout  journey  by 
way  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  River.  The  evolu- 
tion of  the  Oregon  Trail  has  been  summarized  by  Albert 
Watkins,  Historian  of  the  Nebraska  State  Historical 
Society,  in  Collections,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  26,  as  follows:21 

The  Missouri  Fur  Company  sent  an  expedition  of  150  men  to 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Missouri  in  1809.  The  powerful  and 
ferocious  Black  Feet  Indians,  who  were  the  providence  of  the 
Oregon  Trail,  discouraged  the  attempts  of  these  men  to  gain  per- 
manent foothold  there.  Part  of  them  retreated  and  another  part, 
headed  by  the  intrepid  Henry,  crossed  the  mountain  divide  in  the 
fall  of  1810  and  established  Fort  Henry  on  Henry’s  Fork  of  the 
Snake  River.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  southern  movement. 
In  1821  Pilcher,  who  succeeded  Lisa  as  head  of  the  Missouri  Fur 
Company,  made  another  attempt  at  a foothold  in  the  Black  Feet 
country,  but  was  forced  back.  Ashley,  leader  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Fur  Company,  organized  in  1822,  was  also  beaten  back 
in  1823.  By  this  time  Henry  was  discouraged  about  holding  on 
to  the  upper  Missouri  and  turned  his  attention  to  permanent  ex- 
ploitation of  the  Green  River  valley.  In  that  year  Provost 
made  the  important  discovery  of  South  Pass.  In  1824,  Ashley 
conducted  an  expedition  to  the  lower  fields  along  the  regular  trail 
except  that  he  went  to  Council  Bluff  and  from  there  west  up  the 
Platte  Valley.  In  1830,  his  great  lieutenants,  Smith,  Jackson 
and  Sublette,  went  west  with  a train  of  fourteen  wagons — the 
first  to  go  to  the  mountains  over  the  cut-off ; that  is,  up  the  Little 
Blue  valley  to  its  head,  across  to  the  Platte,  following  the  river 
to  the  mountains.  In  1832  Bonneville  also  went  over  the  cut-off 
and  took  a wagon  train  over  the  South  Pass,  the  first  wagons  to 
cross  the  mountains.  In  1832  Nathaniel  Wyeth  went  over  the 
cut-off  to  Oregon,  but  did  not  take  wagons  over  the  mountainous 
part  of  the  course.  In  1836  Marcus  Whitman,  one  of  the  in- 

21  Cf.  p.  230,  Ibid. 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  57 


trepid  winners  and  founders  of  Oregon,  went  almost  through  to 
the  Columbia  with  a wagon,  thus  demonstrating  and  illustrating 
the  practicability  of  a transcontinental  road  for  all  purposes. 
The  Oregon  Trail  was  now  clearly  outlined.  It  was  thoroughly 
established  in  1842  by  the  aggressive  Oregon  emigration. 

The  Final  Trail. — The  Trail  as  finally  adopted  and  used 
by  emigrants  and  freighters  to  Oregon  in  the  “forties” 
started  from  Independence  and  Westport  (outfitting  sta- 
tions near  the  present  metropolis  of  Kansas  City,  Missouri) 
then  followed  in  a general  way  the  Kansas,  Big  Blue,  and 
Little  Blue  Rivers  to  near  the  Platte,  crossing  over  to  the 
latter  river  a short  distance  west  of  the  present  city  of 
Kearney.  The  trail  here  proceeded  up  the  South  bank  to 
the  forks,  and  from  there  up  the  North  Fork  to  the  Sweet- 
water which  it  followed  through  South  Pass.  Thence  it 
bore  southwestward,  westward,  and  northwestward  to  the 
Snake  River  which  was  followed  to  a point  about  west  of 
Boise  where  a cutoff  was  made  through  the  Blue  Mountains 
arriving  at  the  Columbia  River  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Umatilla,  thence  down  the  Columbia  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Salt  Lake  Trail. — Many  variations  of  the  above  de- 
scribed trail  were  in  use.  Travelers  up  the  Missouri  River 
disembarked  at  St.  Joseph,  Nebraska  City,  Plattsmouth  and 
especially  at  Council  Bluffs.  The  great  Mormon  trek  was 
made  from  the  last-named  place.  They  reached  the 
Platte  River  west  of  Omaha  and  followed  it  on  the  north 
bank,  paralleling  the  Oregon  Trail  from  Fort  Kearney  to 
Fort  Laramie,  where  they  crossed  over  and  joined  with  the 
Oregon  Trail  through  South  Pass  then  leaving  that  trail 
turned  south  and  west  to  Great  Salt  Lake. 

Later  California  Trail. — A continuation  of  the  Salt 
Lake  route  north  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  along  the  Hum- 
boldt River,  across  the  desert  to  near  Lake  Tahoe,  where 
there  was  a crossing  through  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
the  Truckee  Pass,  thence  to  the  Gold  Diggings  or  across 
California  by  way  of  the  American  and  Sacramento  Rivers, 
was  a trail  very  popular  to  California  gold  miners  and  was 
afterwards  used  by  the  overland  stage,  and  known  as  the 
Later  California  Trail. 


58  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

Santa  Fe  Trail. — This  road  passed  westward  and  a 
little  south  to  the  Arkansas  River,  which  it  followed  to 
Bent’s  Fort  (Colorado),  thence  up  Timpas  Creek  and  over 
the  Raton  Pass  to  Las  Vegas  (New  Mexico).  Then  west- 
ward through  Apache  Canon  to  Santa  Fe.  This  trail  was 
too  rough  for  wagon  traffic,  so  later  a route  which  crossed 
over  south  from  the  Arkansas  to  the  Cimarron  and  meeting 
the  old  trail  at  Las  V egas  was  used. 

Gila  and  Spanish  Trails. — Two  routes  were  possible 
from  Santa  Fe.  One  southwestward  by  way  of  the  Rio 
Grande  and  Gila  Rivers  into  southern  California.  The 
other  took  a northwesterly  direction  up  the  Chama  River, 
down  the  Dolores  Valley,  and  across  to  the  Grand  River 
near  the  present  site  of  Moab,  Utah.  Then  west  to  the 
Sevier,  up  which  it  followed  until  it  crossed  over  to  the 
Virgin  River;  up  this  for  a short  distance  then  turned 
directly  south-west  across  the  Mohave  desert  toward  Los 
Angeles.  This  last  route  received  the  name  of  Spanish 
Trail. 

Many  of  these  trails  were  difficult  on  account  of  scarcity 
of  water  in  the  deserts.  Descriptions  of  early  travel  over 
them  are  replete  with  hardships,  sickness,  and  deaths. 
Some  of  the  graves  were  marked  with  wooden,  stone,  or 
iron  markers  with  names  roughly  chiseled,  but  more  re- 
ceived no  marking  whatsoever.  Many  travelers  and 
settlers  were  killed  by  the  Indians;  the  tribes  apparently 
becoming  more  hostile  as  the  number  of  whites  increased 
until  their  own  numbers  became  so  decimated  they  could 
no  longer  command  sufficient  warriors  to  warrant  further 
attacks.  It  would  seem  as  though  no  advance  in  civilization 
is  unaccompanied  by  its  toll  of  human  lives. 

Era  of  Turnpiking’. — The  need  of  better  transportation 
facilities  was  “borne  in”  on  the  people  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  country  long  before  the  west  had  been  developed. 
The  Indian  trail,  a single  path, — for  they  always  traveled 
in  single  file — gave  way  to  the  “tote  path”  over  which  each 
year  the  settler’s  surplus  crops  were  transported  to  market 
on  pack  animals.  Even  if  they  owned  wheeled  vehicles  the 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  59 

roads  were  generally  so  bad  they  could  not  be  used.  How- 
ever, wheeled  vehicles  were  not  many  prior  to  1800.  When 
Braddock  wished  to  transport  his  army  to  western  Pennsyl- 
vania he  called  upon  the  colonies  for  wagons,  but  Maryland 
and  Virginia  furnished  only  twenty-five.  He  appealed  to 
Franklin,  who  by  his  influence  was  able  to  secure  154 
wheeled  vehicles  22  from  Pennsylvania,  probably  the  best 
supplied  with  wagons  of  all  the  colonies. 

It  was  the  custom  for  communities  to  join  together  after 
crops  were  gathered  to  start  a caravan  of  packers  to 
market.23  A master  driver  with  one  or  two  assistants  could 
manage  a pack-train  of  a dozen  or  so  horses.  “Hides  and 
peltries,  ginseng,  and  bear’s  grease”  are  mentioned  as 
articles  to  be  bartered  for  salt,  iron,  nails,  pewter  plates 
and  dishes,  and  cloth  and  articles  of  clothing,  although  the 
latter  were  usually  made  at  home.  The  horses  traveled  in 
single  file  each  fitted  with  a natural  crotch  of  wood  for  a 
tree.  Hobbles  and  bells  were  provided  that  the  horses 
could  be  turned  loose  to  graze  at  night.  Sometimes  packs 
had  to  be  taken  off  to  be  carried  over  streams  or  through 
narrow  defiles.  Naturally,  methods  of  transportation  had 
much  influence  on  the  character  of  the  crops  raised. 
Stock — cows,  sheep,  and  pigs — could  be  driven  to  market 
by  the  raiser  or  sold  to  a drover  who  acted  as  a middleman. 
Farm  products  were  concentrated  by  being  fed  to  stock  or 
manufactured  into  something  requiring  less  space.  Settlers 
complained  that  it  required  two  bushels  of  grain  to  get  one 
to  market.  Whisky  and  brandy  were  easily  made,  served 
to  concentrate  the  grain  and  surplus  fruit  and  always  had 
a ready  sale.  When  the  government  placed  an  excise  tax 
on  it  the  opposition  was  so  great  as  to  produce  an  insurrec- 
tion in  Pennsylvania  (1794).  Had  there  been  good  trans- 
portation facilities  probably  there  never  would  have  been 
a “Whisky  Rebellion.”  Sixteen  gallons  (two  kegs)  of 
whisky  worth  $1.00  per  gallon  east  of  the  Alleghanies  was 

22  Dunbar ’s  ‘ ‘ History  of  Travel.  ’ ’ 

22  Doddridge ’s  “Notes  on  the  Settlement  of  Indian  Wars.” 
Monette’s  “History  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.” 


60  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

a horse  load;  whereas  the  same  animal  would  only  pack 
about  two  bushels  of  grain  worth,  perhaps,  80  cents. 
That  packing  was  a business  of  considerable  importance 
is  shown  by  a statement  in  ‘ ‘ The  History  and  Topography 
of  Dauphin  (and)  Cumberland  Counties  (Pa.)”  quoted 
by  Dunbar : ‘ ‘ Sixty  or  seventy  years  ago  five  hundred  pack 
horses  had  been  at  one  time  in  Carlisle,  going  thence  to 
Shippenburg,  Fort  London  and  further  westward.”  This 
Was  written  in  1848. 

Naturally  so  much  traffic  induced  men  to  make  packing 
a means  of  livelihood.  They  became  so  numerous  and 
strong  that  when  wagons  began  to  take  over  the  business 
of  freighting  they  considered  it  an  infringement  upon  their 
vested  rights.  But  as  goods  could  be  transported  more 
easily  and  cheaply  by  wagon  the  old  had  to  make  way  for 
the  new.  Wagon  roads  and  at  first  two-wheeled  then  four- 
wheeled  vehicles  began  to  appear.  This  created  a demand 
for  better  roads.  At  first  that  consisted  in  merely  widen- 
ing the  packtrain  trails.  But  about  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  Tresaguet  in  France,  and  Macadam 
and  Telford,  in  Great  Britain,  were  building  broken-stone 
roads  which  greatly  changed  and  augmented  the  internal 
commerce  and  the  industry  of  those  countries.  The  most 
populous  and  wealthy  of  the  colonies  likewise  began  to 
consider  the  road  question.  A few  military  roads,  such  as 
Braddock’s,  had  been  constructed;  there  was  a road  along 
the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  and  some  roads  and  bridges  in 
the  interior,  there  were  roads  connecting  the  larger  cities 
as  from  Boston  to  New  York  and  from  New  York  to 
Philadelphia.  The  cities  in  order  to  retain  and  extend 
their  trade  needed  highways  of  commerce. 

Turnpike  Roads. — The  construction  of  turnpike  roads 
many  of  which  were  stoned  was  encouraged  by  a number 
of  the  states,  especially  by  Pennsylvania.  The  Lancaster 
turnpike  from  Philadelphia  to  Lancaster  was  “stoned”  in 
1792  by  throwing  on  it  stones  of  all  sizes.  These  were 
afterwards  removed  and  stones  “passing  a 2-inch  ring” 
substituted.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  scientifically 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  61 

built  hard  surfaced  road  in  America.  In  1800  Pennsyl- 
vania fostered  the  construction  of  a system  of  turnpikes 
(toll  roads),  by  granting  franchises  and  subscribing  stock, 
which  was  eventually  to  cover  the  state  and  control  the  west- 
ern market.  By  1828  there  had  been  3110  miles  of  chartered 
turnpike  in  Pennsylvania  costing  over  $8,000,000.  These 
thousands  of  miles  of  fine  turnpike  roads  including  many 
good  bridges  placed  Pennsylvania  in  the  lead  for  internal 
improvements.  But  other  states  were  similarly  employed. 
New  York  and  New  England  by  1811  had  chartered  317 
turnpikes.24  Virginia  appropriated  funds  “to  be  used 
exclusively  for  river  improvements,  canals  and  public  high- 
ways,” in  1816.  South  Carolina  voted  a million  dollars, 
in  1818,  to  be  raised  in  four  annual  levies  for  similar 
purposes. 

During  these  years  the  states  were  opening  public  roads 
but  the  only  good  roads  were  those  built  by  the  turnpike 
companies,  which  erected  gates  and  collected  tolls  every 
few  miles.  This  resulted  in  a higher  cost  of  transportation 
than  was  liked  by  the  public  who  clamored  for  free  roads 
and  canals.  They  were  wanted  by  both  the  producer  and 
the  merchant.  The  turnpikes  were  opposed  to  anything 
which  would  tend  to  reduce  their  control  of  transportation. 

Wagon  Road  Desuetude. — The  introduction  of  the 
steam  railway  with  its  quicker,  better,  and  cheaper  form 
of  transportation  put  . out  of  existence  the  freighting  and 
coaching  business  of  the  turnpikes,  in  fact  of  all  wagon 
roads.  Roads  which  had  had  a thriving  trade  found  their 
toll  boxes  scarcely  held  enough  to  maintain  the  gate  keeper. 
As  there  was  no  adequate  system  of  maintenance,  although 
many  of  them  had  been  macadamized,  they  gradually  fell 
into  a state  of  disrepair.  Freighters  and  coaehers 
gravitated  westward  or  took  shorter  runs  as  feeders  to  the 
railroads.  Turnpikes,  built  as  private  or  semi-private 
enterprises,  were  gradually  being  taken  over  by  the  public 
and  maintained  by  local  road  overseers.  The  old  practice 

24  Cf . Gallatin ’s  report  for  a scheme  of  national  roads  and  pave- 
ments (Adams’  Gallatin,  p.  350  et  seq.). 


62  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 


of  calling  on  the  freeholders  to  work  out  their  road  tax 
annually  was  in  vogue  and  is  still  in  use  in  places.  By  it 
no  road  was  ever  kept  at  a high  state  of  efficiency.  Even 
the  National  highway,  the  Cumberland  Road,  which  had 
been  constructed  to  Vandalia,  Illinois,  and  surfaced  with 
stone  to  Columbus,  Ohio,  at  an  expense  to  the  nation  of 
nearly  seven  millions  of  dollars,  had  lost  its  ardent  sup- 
porters. Jackson’s  theory  that  national  money  should  only 
be  spent  for  roads  in  territories,  and  the  states’  right  idea 
that  each  state  should  be  the  unit  of  government  and  look 
after  all  its  own  internal  affairs,  seemed  to  prevail.  As  a 
result  wagon  road  building  further  than  to  make  a mere 
way  for  crop  marketing  at  odd  seasons  of  the  year  stood 
still  until  bicycle  enthusiasts  began  an  agitation  for  better 
roads  about  1890.  However,  a real  awakening  to  the  ad- 
vantages of  good  roads  came  only  after  the  advent  of  the 
automobile  about  1900. 

National  Participation. — The  Revolutionary  War  had 
shown  the  need  of  roadways  for  quick  intercourse  between 
the  seaboard  and  the  trans- Alleghany  regions.  The  efforts 
of  the  different  states,  still  retaining  their  colonial  jealous- 
ies, to  secure  the  control  of  the  trade  of  these  regions  em- 
phasized the  need  of  a unifying  influence  which  would 
bring  harmony.  The  debate  proceeded  in  a desultory  fash 
ion  for  a number  of  years.  Strict  constitutionalists  did 
not  believe  the  national  government  has  the  authority  to 
construct  roads  at  all.  States’  rights  men  argued  that  road 
construction  is  the  province  of  the  states  and  the  Nati^pal 
Government  has  jurisdiction  only  in  the  territories.  On 
March  29,  1806,  President  Thomas  Jefferson  approved  a 
bill  to  survey  and  construct  a road  from  a point  on  the 
Potomac  near  Cumberland  to  the  Ohio  River  near  Steuben- 
ville popularly  known  as  the  Cumberland  or  National  road, 
and  appropriated  therefor  $30,000.  This  was  in  the  minds 
of  friends  of  government  control  to  be  the  beginning ; there 
was  increasing  need  of  travel  and  traffic  facilities  from  the 
Hudson  to  the  Great  Lakes,  from  the  Delaware  to  the  Ohio; 
from  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  to  Kentucky  and  Ten- 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  63 

nessee,  to  say  nothing  of  north  and  south  routes,  which  un- 
fortunately did  not  mature  in  time  to  prevent  the  great 
Civil  War  a half-century  later. 

Alfred  Gallatin  and  Henry  Clay  sponsored  the  Cumber- 
land Road.  The  former  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of 
Congress  (1808)  drew  up  a scheme  for  a national  system 
of  internal  improvements  by  roads  and  canals  at  an  annual 
expense  of  $2,000,000  for  ten  years.  But  its  opponents 
were  able  to  stay  it  off  and  the  war  of  1812  coming  on 
caused  financial  troubles  and  the  entire  scheme  was  indefi- 
nitely postponed. 

The  first  appropriation  for  the  Cumberland  Road  had 
been  made,  not  from  the  general  funds  of  the  government, 
but  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  land,  a fiction,  of 
course,  for  the  benefit  of  the  strict  constitutionalists. 
Gradually,  however,  Congress  came  to  accept  the  doctrine 
of  “implied  powers.”  Madison  in  his  last  message  invited 
the  attention  of  Congress  “to  the  expediency  of  exercising 
their  existing  powers  and,  where  necessary,  of  resorting  to 
the  prescribed  mode  of  enlarging  them,  in  order  to  effec- 
tuate a comprehensive  system  of  roads  and  canals,  such  as 
will  have  the  effect  of  drawing  more  closely  together  every 
part  of  the  country,  by  promoting  intercourse  and  im- 
provements and  by  increasing  the  share  of  every  part  of  the 
common  stock  of  national  prosperity.  ’ ’ 25 

Up  to  this  time  there  had  been  completed  only  23  miles 
of  the  road.  In  1816,  $300,000  was  appropriated  for  its 
completion;  two  years  later  $260,000  was  voted;  but  a 
proposal  to  appropriate  $600,000  for  internal  improve- 
ments failed  in  1817,  as  did  also  a bill  providing  for  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Cumberland  Road.  But  as  a result  of  the 
labor  of  Henry  Clay,  Albert  Gallatin,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
President  James  Madison,  and  other  friends  of  cheap  and 
rapid  transit,  by  1820  the  total  of  Congressional  appropria- 
tions for  the  Cumberland  Road  amounted  to  more  than 
$1,500,000;  in  1844  the  thirty-fourth  appropriation  made 
a total  of  nearly  $7,000,000.26  The  growth  of  the  road  was 

25  Kichardson,  “Messages  and  Papers.” 

28  Hurlbert.  ‘ ‘ Cumberland  Eoad.  ’ ’ 


64  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 

slow:  the  first  contract  was  let  in  1811  for  10  miles;  con- 
tracts for  short  sections  were  let  from  year  to  year  and  the 
road  by  1817  had  crawled,  following  approximately  the 
Nemacolin  Path,  with  the  Potomac  through  the  Cumber- 
land gateway  over  the  Alleghany  range  by  way  of  Negro 
Mountain  at  an  elevation  of  2325  feet,  down  to  the 
Youghiogheny,  past  the  scene  of  Braddock’s  defeat  and  the 
cairn  which  marks  his  resting  place,  through  the  Laurel 
Hill  Range  over  to  Brownsville  within  reach  of  Pittsburgh, 
thence  westward  slightly  north  through  Washington 
(Pennsylvania),  to  Wheeling  (West  Virginia)  on  the  Ohio 
River. 

Thus  had  the  old  Indian  trail  developed  into  a route  for 
Washington  and  his  band  to  Fort  Necessity;  into  Brad- 
dock’s  road  to  Great  Meadows;  into  a pack  train  trail 
trampled  by  thousands  of  caravan  hoofs;  and,  finally,  into 
a finished  paved  highway  cleared  to  66  feet  in  width,  hav- 
ing no  grade  above  5 per  cent  which  Washington  and 
Jefferson  and  Madison  had  visions  would  be  the  means  of 
binding  together  with  the  strong  bands  of  commerce  the 
cis-  and  trans-Alleghanian  countries. 

Extension  of  the  Cumberland  Highway. — The  road  im- 
mediately proved  its  worth.  The  mail  coaches  were  placed 
upon  it ; great  freight  lines  were  established  having  their 
own  stage  houses  and  depots  in  towns  along  its  way;  inns 
and  hotels  thrived;  apparently  the  “pulse  of  the  nation 
beat  to  the  steady  throb  of  trade  along  its  highway.27  Like 
the  Appian  Way  it  became  noted  the  world  over.  The 
National,  Good  Intent,  June  Bug,  and  Pioneer  stage  coach 
lines  were  common  names  as  are  the  Pennsylvania,  New 
York  Central,  Burlington,  and  Union  Pacific  railroad  lines 
of  to-day.  The  coming  to  town  of  these  coaches,  which  had 
developed  from  the  plain  square  box,  through  the  oval  type 
to  the  finished  Concord  painted  in  brilliant  colors,  perhaps 
bearing  the  name  of  some  prominent  personage,  drawn  by 
four  and  six  horses,  with  the  proud  and  arrogant  driver 
often  better  known  than  the  eminent  patrons  whose  names 

-1  Hulbert,  ‘ ‘ The  Paths  of  Inland  Commerce.  ’ ’ 


Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States  65 

now  grace  the  pages  of  history,  was  an  important  event  in 
the  work  of  the  day.  Hardly  had  the  stage  stopped  before 
the  hostlers  were  busy  changing  the  horses,  taking  the  tired 
animals  to  rub-down,  rest,  and  feed,  bringing  on  fresh 
high-stepping  spirited  ones,  champing  their  bits,  ap- 
parently very  anxious  for  a galloping  start  toward  the 
next  post;  the  passengers  were  alighting  to  stretch  their 
legs,  rest  and  refresh  themselves  at  nearby  food  “em- 
poriums” or  select  an  inn  from  among  the  claims  of 
numerous  barkers ; agents  were  transferring  and  recording 
baggage,  mail,  and  express ; and  the  curiosity  loungers  con- 
stituted most  of  the  remaining  populace.  The  stage  driver, 
Westover,  made  a record  of  forty-five  minutes  for  the  20 
miles  between  Uniontown  and  Brownsville,  while  “Red” 
Bunting’s  drive  of  131  miles,  with  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Mexico,  in  twelve  hours  remains,  like  Paul  Revere ’s 
ride,  a part  of  the  nation’s  history. 

The  amount  of  traffic  over  the  National  road  was  tremen- 
dous. The  annual  traffic  was  probably  not  less  than  3000 
wagons.28  One  firm  in  Wheeling  is  said  to  have,  during  the 
first  five  years  of  its  existence,  done  a business  of  over  5000 
wagons  carrying  2 tons  each.29  A view  of  the  road  must 
have  been  interesting,  for  the  Conestoga  wagons  with  their 
sway-backed  canvas  covers  were  said  to  have  been  “visible 
all  day  long,30  at  every  point,  making  the  highway  look 
more  like  a leading  avenue  of  a great  city  than  a road 
through  rural  districts.  ...  I have  staid  over  night  with 
William  Cheets  on  Nigger  (Negro)  Mountain  when  there 
were  about  thirty  six-horse  teams  in  a wagon  yard,  a hun- 
dred Kentucky  mules  in  an  adjoining  lot,  a thousand  hogs 
in  their  enclosures,  and  as  many  fat  cattle  in  adjoining 
fields.  The  music  made  by  this  large  number  of  hogs  eating 
corn  on  a frosty  night  I shall  never  forget.  After  supper 
and  attention  to  the  teams,  the  waggoners  would  gather  in 
the  bar-room  and  listen  to  the  music  on  the  violin  furnished 

28  “American  Nation,”  Yol.  XIV,  p.  100. 

29  Hurlbert,  ‘ ‘ The  Paths  of  Inland  Commerce,  ’ ’ p.  121. 

*°  Searight,  quoted  by  Hurlbert. 


66  Transportation  Developvient  in  the  United  States 

by  one  of  their  fellows,  have  a Virginia  hoe-down,  sing 
songs,  tell  anecdotes,  and  hear  the  experience  of  drivers 
and  drovers  from  all  points  of  the  road,  and,  when  it  was 
over,  unroll  their  beds,  lay  them  down  on  the  floor  before 
the  bar  room  fire  side  by  side,  and  sleep  with  their  feet  near 
the  blaze  as  soundly  as  under  a parental  roof.” 

Ah ! where  is  the  poet  whose  facile  pen  will  engrave  upon 
the  tablets  of  literature  the  tales  of  these  men  as  has  Long- 
fellow the  “Tales  of  a Wayside  Inn”  in  Sudbury  Town  so 
alike,  where : 


. . . from  the  parlor  of  the  inn 
A pleasant  murmur  smote  the  ear, 

Like  water  rushing  through  a weir; 

Oft  interrupted  by  the  din 
Of  laughter  and  of  loud  applause; 

And,  in  each  intervening  pause, 

The  music  of  a violin. 

The  success  of  the  Cumberland  Road  to  the  Ohio  created 
demands  for  its  extension.  In  conformity  to  this  demand 
$10,000  was  appropriated  in  1820  to  lay  out  a road  from 
Wheeling  to  the  Mississippi  River  near  St.  Louis.  This 
continuation  was  for  a road  80  feet  wide  and  in  spite  of 
much  congressional  objection  and  occasional  presidential 
vetoes,  the  road  was  pushed  on;  the  last  appropriation 
being  made  for  a portion  west  of  the  Ohio,  May  25,  1838. 
The  exact  total  of  all  appropriations  amounted  to  $6,824,- 
919.33.  The  road  proper  reached  southern  Illinois. 

States  wanted  appropriations  for  other  roads,  but  these 
were  pretty  generally  vetoed.  One  important  case  was  the 
veto,  1830,  by  Jackson  of  the  bill  authorizing  a subscrip- 
tion by  the  United  States  for  stock  in  the  Maysville,  Wash- 
ington, Paris,  and  Lexington  Road  Company.  The  com- 
pany was  incorporated  in  Kentucky  to  build  a road  from 
the  Cumberland  Road  at  Tanesville,  Ohio,  to  Florence, 
Alabama,  on  the  Tennessee  River,  which  had  been  surveyed 
by  U.  S.  engineers  in  1827.  Maysville,  through  which  the 
road  was  to  pass,  was  on  the  south  side  of  the  Ohio  River, 


Courtesy  of  Prof.  P.  K.  Slaymaker 

WAY  BILL  USED  ON  SLAYMAKER  STAGE  LINE  FROM 
LANCASTER  TO  PHILADELPHIA,  1815 


Transportation  Development  in  the  U nited  States  67 

and  did  considerable  trade  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
A census  was  taken  of  the  existing  road,  admitted  to  be 
in  bad  condition,  showing  an  average  daily  traffic  of  351 
persons,  33  carriages  and  51  wagons.  The  $150,000  to  be 
subscribed  by  the  government  was  not  to  be  paid  until  an 
equal  amount  had  been  subscribed  in  equal  parts  by  the 
State  of  Kentucky  and  private  individuals.  Other  bills  of 
a similar  character  were  before  Congress,  one  for  a road 
from  Buffalo  to  New  Orleans  having  been  laid  on  the  table, 
and  opponents  of  the  bill  Insisted  any  road  anywhere  could 
be  as  wrell  regarded  to  be  a national  road  as  could  be  the 
Maysville  road.  The  Washington  Turnpike  Company  bill 
of  a similar  tenor  was  vetoed.31  Jackson  evidently  doubted 
the  constitutional  right  of  the  government  to  enter  into 
internal  projects  of  this  character.  In  his  message  to  Con- 
gress he  had  conceded  that  ‘ ‘ every  member  of  the  Union,  in 
peace  and  in  war,  will  be  benefited  by  the  improvement  of 
inland  navigation  and  the  construction  of  highways  in  the 
several  states,”  he  noted  the  opposition  to  methods  hereto- 
fore adopted  as  unconstitutional  and  inexpedient.  He 
therefore  proposed  an  amendment  to  the  constitution,  to  be 
submitted  if  it  could  not  otherwise  be  done,  whereby  the 
surplus  revenue  might  be  appropriated  to  the  several  states 
in  proportion  to  their  representation  in  Congress  for  the 
purpose  of  internal  improvements.  State  sovereignty  was 
always  to  be  maintained. 

In  1838  when  the  road  had  reached  Southern  Illinois  a 
new  element  entered  the  industrial  world.  The  railroads 
were  proving  their  ability  to  compete  most  successfully 
with  other  forms  of  transportation.  The  building  of 
national  highways  ceased ; canal  and  river  transportation 
were  practically  put  out  of  business  with  the  entrance  of 
this  new  leviathan. 

n Debates  of  Congress  VI,  433-435,  806,  820. 


68  Transportation  Development  in  the  United  States 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Adams,  Henry,  “Life  of  Albert  Gallatin,”  Edited  by  Henry 
Adams,  Vol.  I,  pp.  78,  79,  305,  309,  370,  395.  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  & Co.,  Philadelphia. 

Boone,  Daniel,  “Autobiography,”  dictated  to  John  Filson,  1784, 
is  given  also  as  an  appendix  to  Hartley’s  “Life  of  Daniel 
Boone.” 

Calk,  William,  “Diary  of”  in  Filson  Club  publications. 

Doddridge,  Joseph,  “Notes  on  the  Settlement  of  Indian  Wars.” 
Chaps.  I,  XIII,  XVIII,  XXIV;  First  publication,  1824, 
Third — Rittenour  & Linsey,  Pittsburgh,  1912. 

Dunbar,  Seymour,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America,”  4 volumes, 
1915,  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  Indianapolis. 

Early,  Alice  Morse,  “Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days.” 

Channing,  Edward,  “The  Jefferson  System,”  Vol.  XII,  The 
American  Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

Farrand,  L.,  “Bases  of  American  History,”  Vol.  II  of  the 
American  Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

Hartley,  Cecil  B.,  “Life  of  Daniel  Boone,”  1865,  Porter  & 
Coates,  Philadelphia. 

Howard,  George  E.,  “Preliminaries  of  the  Revolution,”  Vol. 
VIII  of  the  American  Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers, 
New  York. 

PIowe,  Henry,  “History  of  the  West.” 

IIurlbert,  A.  B.,  “Historic  Highways  of  America,”  16  volumes, 
1902-05,  A.  II.  Clark  Company,  Cleveland,  O. 

Hurlbert,  A.  B.,  “The  Paths  of  Inland  Commerce,”  Chronicles 
of  America  Series,  Vol.  21,  New  Haven,  1920. 

Irving,  Washington,  “Astoria,”  Irving’s  Works,  Vol.  I,  G.  P. 
Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  “Poetical  Works,”  Houghton  Mifflin 
Co.,  Boston. 

McMaster,  John  Bach,  “History  of  the  United  States,”  Vol. 
V,  Chap.  XLIV,  D.  Appleton  & Company,  New  York. 

Monette,  John  W.,  “History  of  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,” 
Vol.  II,  Chap.  II,  pp.  52-58,  Harper  & Brothers,  New 
York,  1846. 

“Register  of  Debates  in  Congress,”  Vol.  VI,  pp.  433-435,  806, 
and  820.  Published  by  order  of  Congress,  13  Vol.  Wash- 
ington, 1825-37. 

Richardson,  James  D.,  “Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presi- 
dents.” 8 volumes,  Government  Print,  Washington. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  “Winning  of  the  West,”  Vols.  I,  II  and 
IV.  G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York,  1889. 


Transportation  Development  in  the  U nited  States  69 

Speed,  Thomas,  “The  Wilderness  Road,”  No.  2 of  the  Filson 
Club  publications,  Louisville,  1886. 

Turner,  Frederick  J.,  “Rise  of  the  New  West,”  Vol.  XIV  of 
the  American  Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

Tyler,  L.  G.,  “England  in  America,”  Vol.  IV  of  the  American 
Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Census  review  of  “Agencies  of  Transportation,”  1880. 

Watkins,  Albert,  “The  Oregon  Trail,”  Nebraska  State  His- 
torical Society  Collections,  Vol.  XVI,  p.  26  et  seq. 


CHAPTER  III 


WATER  WAYS  AND  CANALS 

From  the  earliest  exploration  and  settlement  pei’iods 
rivers  and  coast  inlets  have  been  used  for  transportation. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  Indian,  before  the  coming  of 
the  white  man,  made  good  use  of  his  canoe.  Boats  and 
barges  propelled  by  oars,  poles,  or  snubbed  along  by  ropes 
attached  to  trees  on  the  banks  were  in  early  use.  Along  the 
coast  and  the  larger  rivers  sails  were  made  use  of.  Upon 
the  ocean  there  was  a large  development  in  wooden  sailing 
vessels.  The  great  number  of  American  ships  and  the  in- 
roads made  by  American  merchants  upon  English  trade 
had  much  to  do  with  bringing  on  the  war  of  1812. 

Canals. — Canals  had  shown  their  usefulness  in  England 
and  other  European  countries,  for  transporting  the  in- 
ternal commerce  cheaply  and  efficiently ; it  was  but  natural, 
therefore,  that  they  should  be  considered  in  the  United 
States.  The  first  canal  was  in  Orange  County,  New  York, 
and  was  used  for  transporting  stone  as  early  as  1750. 
Numerous  short  canals  were  constructed  in  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  and  Massachusetts  prior  to  1810,  but  the  peak 
of  canal  building  came  after  this  date.  The  first  lock  used 
in  the  United  States  was  part  of  a canal  extending  from  the 
Schuylkill  River  to  the  Susquehanna  in  Pennsylvania. 

New  York,  seeing  the  trade  of  the  Northwest  Territory 
going  to  Philadelphia  on  account  of  the  turnpikes  which 
had  crossed  the  Alleghanies  through  state  and  private 
means,  was  anxious  to  do  something  to  get  control.  An 
agitation  for  a canal  joining  the  Hudson  River  with  Lake 
Erie  or  Lake  Ontario  consummated  in  a commission,  1810, 

70 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


71 


headed  by  Gouverneur  Morris,  to  investigate  the  question  of 
building  one  or  both  of  the  canals  which  seemed  feasible, 
namely  (1)  from  Albany  up  the  Mohawk  and  westward  to 
Lake  Erie  near  Buffalo;  (2)  from  Albany  to  Lake  Cham- 
plain, thence  an  opening  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  had 
already  been  surveyed.  In  1812  a second  commission  was 
formed  which  included  with  Morris,  such  men  as  De  Witt 
Clinton,  Robert  Fulton,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston.  An  en- 
deavor was  made  to  secure  Congressional  aid.  The  war 
coming  on  no  action  was  taken,  but  the  demands  for  the 
canal  continued.  To  the  energy  and  political  ability  of 
DeWitt  Clinton  is  attributed  the  final  success  of  the  enter- 
prise. When  he  was  elected  governor  in  1816  he  made  this 
the  paramount  effort  of  his  administration.  He  stirred 
public  interest  by  addresses  and  presented  a convincing 
memorial  to  the  legislature.  He  argued  that  “As  a bond 
of  union  between  the  Atlantic  and  western  states  it  may 
prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the  American  empire.  As 
an  organ  of  communication  between  the  Hudson,  the 
Mississippi,  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes  of  the  north 
and  west,  and  their  tributary  rivers,  it  will  create  the 
greatest  inland  trade  ever  witnessed.  The  most  fertile  and 
extensive  regions  of  America  will  avail  themselves  of  its 
facilities  for  a market.  All  their  surplus  productions,” 
he  prophesied,  “whether  of  the  soil,  the  forest,  the  mines, 
or  the  water,  their  fabrics  of  art  and  their  supplies  of 
foreign  commodities,  will  concentrate  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  for  transportation  abroad  or  consumption  at  home. 
Agriculture,  manufactures,  commerce,  trade,  navigation 
and  the  arts,”  he  continued,  “will  receive  a correspond- 
ing encouragement.  That  city  will  in  the  course  of  time 
become  the  granary  of  the  world,  the  emporium  of  com- 
merce, the  seat  of  manufactures,  the  focus  of  great  moneyed 
operations,  and  the  concentrating  point  of  vast,  disposable 
and  accumulating  capitals,  which  will  stimulate,  enliven, 
extend,  and  reward  the  exertions  of  human  labor  and  in- 
genuity, in  all  their  processes  and  exhibitions.  And  before 
the  revolution  of  a century,  the  whole  island  of  Manhattan, 


72 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


covered  with  habitations  and  replenished  with  a dense 
population  will  constitute  one  vast  city.  ’ ’ 1 

As  bombastic  as  this  may  seem  his  predictions  have  been 
more  than  realized  and  the  realization  began  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal  to  Buffalo  in  1825.  There  grew  up 
along  its  way  the  great  cities  of  Buffalo,  Rochester,  Albany, 
and  scores  of  smaller  ones.  The  products  of  the  entire  west 
did  seem  to  flow  through  it,  for  the  tolls  are  said  to  have 
been  a half  million  dollars  per  year  immediately  upon  its 
completion  and  over  a million  by  1830. 2 

This  the  largest  canal  project  in  the  United  States  is 
still  in  use.  As  first  constructed,  it  was  40  feet  wide  at  the 
top,  4 feet  deep,  and  was  navigable  for  76-ton  boats.  It 
was  later  enlarged  to  a general  width  of  70  feet  and  depth 
of  7 feet,  navigable  for  boats  of  240  tons  burden.  Some  of 
the  locks  had  been  replaced  by  power  lifts;  the  transfers 
are  more  quickly  made. 

The  increase  of  New  York’s  prestige  of  course  diminished 
that  of  Philadelphia.  Pittsburgh  was,  too,  growing  up  at 
the  head  of  Ohio  River  navigation  and  in  the  coal  and  iron 
regions  of  Pennsylvania. 

While  numerous  canals  had  been  constructed  by  private 
enterprises  an  extensive  system  of  canals  was  begun  under 
an  act  of  1825,  to  connect  Philadelphia  with  Pittsburgh  as 
well  as  other  objective  points.  Jealousies  sprang  up  over 
the  state,  as  usually  do  with  any  improvement.  Always 
one  part  thinks  the  other  is  getting  more  than  its  just  share. 
But  notwithstanding,  nearly  a thousand  miles  of  canals 
have  been  constructed  in  Pennsylvania,  some  of  which 
washed  out  and  were  never  replaced,  some  were  abandoned 
and  some  are  still  in  operation.  In  Ohio  two  canals  were 
built  by  the  state  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Ohio  River,  over 
400  miles  in  all.  One  of  these  extended  from  Toledo 
through  Defiance,  St.  Marys,  and  Dayton  to  Cincinnati; 
the  other  from  Cleveland  through  Akron,  New  Phila- 
delphia, Coshocton,  Newark,  Columbus,  Chillieothe,  to 

1 ‘ 1 American  Nation,  ’ ’ Yol.  XIV,  p.  32. 

2 McMaster,  ‘ ‘ United  States,  ’ ’ Vol.  V. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


73 


Portsmouth.  Branch  lines  were  run  down  the  Muskingum 
to  Marietta,  down  the  Hocking  to  Athens,  and  from  Junc- 
tion westward  to  Antwerp  to  connect  with  the  Indiana 
canal  system.  Making  a total  for  Ohio  about  1000  3 miles. 
In  Indiana  the  Wabash  & Erie  Canal,  begun  about  1834, 
was  constructed  through  Fort  Wayne,  LaFayette,  Terre 
Haute  to  Evansville,  in  1853,  on  its  way  to  the  Ohio  River. 
By  this  time  the  railroads  had  paralleled  its  course  and  its 
trade  had  practically  ceased. 

One  of  the  earliest  projects,  said  to  have  had  the  backing 
of  President  Washington,  culminated,  eventually,  in  the 
Chesapeake  & Ohio  canal  extending  from  Georgetown, 
the  upper  limit  of  tidewater  on  the  Potomac,  to  Cumber- 
land. After  numerous  efforts  and  years  of  talking,  repre- 
sentatives of  Maryland,  Virginia,  District  of  Columbia, 
and  Pennsylvania  met  in  a convention  in  the  city  of 
Washington  and  passed  resolutions  stating  that  “Whereas 
the  connection  of  Atlantic  and  Western  waters  by  a canal 
leading  from  the  city  of  National  Government  to  the  River 
Ohio  ...  is  one  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  states 
. . . Resolved  that  it  is  expedient  to  substitute  for  the 
present  defective  navigation  of  the  Potomac  River,  above 
tidewater,  a navigable  canal  from  Cumberland  to  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Alleghany  and  to  extend  such  canal  as 
soon  thereafter  as  practicable  to  the  highest  constant 
steamboat  navigation  of  the  Monongahela  or  Ohio  River.” 
Jealousies  between  the  states  delayed  matters  somewhat, 
but  in  1825  the  proponents  obtained  governmental  partici- 
pation. Delays  occurred  for  various  causes,  but  in  1828 
Congress  authorized  the  U.  S.  treasurer  to  subscribe  for 
$1,300,000  worth  of  stock  and  went  further  and  guaranteed 


•Length  of  Miami  and  Erie  Canal 301.49  miles 

“ “ Ohio  Canal 512.26 

“ “ Penn,  and  Ohio  Canal 76 

“ “ Sandy  and  Beaver  Canal 79 

“ “ Whitewater  Canal 32 


Total 1000.75  miles 


— Dunbar ’s  ‘ ‘ History  of  Travel  in  America. 


74 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


subscriptions  made  by  the  towns  of  Washington,  George- 
town, and  Alexandria  to  the  amount  of  $1,500,000.  The 
United  States  had  then  once  more  endorsed  the  policy  of 
spending  national  money  for  internal  improvements,  and 
had  become  a partner  in  a canal  proposition.  Building 
proceeded  slowly.  Many  difficulties  were  encountered. 
Opponents  fought  it  in  the  legislatures  of  Maryland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia,  as  well  as  in  Congress.  In 
two  years  the  money  was  gone  and  the  canal  not  com- 
pleted. Maryland  extended  further  aid,  and  then  still  more 
aid  by  the  help  of  which  the  canal  was  completed  to 
Cumberland  in  1850.  In  1870  efforts  were  made  to  have 
the  Government  carry  the  canal  on  to  the  Ohio  River,  but 
the  plan  was  never  consummated.  This  canal  is  still  in 
use,  the  bulk  of  its  traffic  being  coal  brought  down  to 
Washington. 

Canals  were  constructed  in  many  other  states,  but  they 
need  not  here  be  followed  in  detail.  Illinois  was  connect- 
ing Chicago  with  the  Mississippi  River ; Massachusetts 
built  artificial  ways  about  falls  and  rapids;  New  Jersey 
connected  the  Hudson  with  the  Delaware;  and  numerous 
other  schemes  were  carried  out. 

Canal  Prosperity  and  Desuetude. — Until  the  greater  ad- 
vantages of  railway  travel  and  traffic  lessened  the  useful- 
ness of  the  canals,  they  did  a thriving  business.  As  has 
already  been  noted  with  regard  to  the  Erie  canal  so  was  it 
with  the  others.4  In  the  whole  United  States  there  was  a 
“grand  total  of  4,468  miles  5 of  canals,  costing  approxi- 
mately $214,141,802.”  Not  all  these  were  remunerative. 
To  the  end  of  1872  the  New  York  Canals  had  only  averaged 


4 Total  mileage  of  boats  clearing  from 

Fort  Wayne  in  1849 209,982 

LaFayette  162,297 

Total  mileage  by  passengers  from  and  to 

Fort  Wayne  in  1849 519,336 

LaFayette  505,397 


“Annual  Eeport  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,” 
1849. 

s U.  S.  Census  review  of  “Agencies  of  Transportation,”  1880. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


75 


a profit  of  3.2  per  cent,  while  the  Erie  Canal  proper  paid 
but  4 per  cent  on  its  cost.6  The  speed  at  which  the  barges 
traveled  was  about  2 miles  per  hour;  this  was  reduced  on 
account  of  time  lost  by  regular  stops,  passing  through  locks, 
and  accidents,  to  1.7  miles  per  hour  on  the  average.  Rates 
for  freight  were  about  0.3  cent  per  ton  per  mile.  The  rail- 
roads later  hauled  through  freight  at  0.7  cent  per  ton  per 
mile.  Both  these  rates  were,  no  doubt  too  small,  for 
proper  maintenance  and  remuneration. 

Passenger  traffic,  notwithstanding  the  slow  speed, 
amounted  to  a considerable  volume.  Packets  were  in  use, 
that  for  workmanship,  finish  and  convenience  vied  with  the 
Pullman  cars  which  later  supplanted  them.  They  were 
decorated  in  bright  colors — green,  yellow,  brown,  red, 
white,  blue — with  windows  and  panels  done  in  contrasting 
and  harmonizing  shades  and  tints.  On  the  interior  in 
addition  to  compartments  for  the  crew  which  were 
separated  from  those  for  the  passengers,  were  usually  a 
large  general  assembly  room  ordinarily  occupied  by  the 
men  for  lounging,  writing  letters,  playing  games,  and  pro- 
tection from  stormy  weather.  There  was  a special  cabin 
for  the  women,  also  lavatories  and  conveniences  for  men 
and  women.  In  addition  there  were  kitchen,  lockers,  and 
cupboards.  Three  times  daily  the  assembly  saloon  was 
transformed  into  a dining  room  by  re-arranging  and  set- 
ting the  tables  which  constituted  a regular  part  of  the 
room’s  furniture  with  others  of  a temporary  nature,  car- 
ried stored  away  on  the  boat,  into  one  long  table  lengthwise 
of  the  room.  The  captain  and  his  two  assistants — the  mule 
driver  and  steersman  not  on  duty  at  the  time — performed 
this  service  and  waited  upon  tables.  At  night  both  the  saloon 
and  ladies’  cabin  were  converted  into  dormitories  by 
attaching  shelves  about  6 feet  long  and  3!/2  feet  wide  to 
hooks  in  the  wall,  the  outer  edges  being  held  up  by  wooden 
supports  extending  from  the  floor.  In  each  berth  was 
placed  a “mattress,”  that  is  a tick  having  some  straw  in  it 
and  a pillow  of  similar  make. 

“Johnson’s  Cyclopaedia. 


76 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


The  passenger  usually  furnished  his  own  sheets  if  they 
were  wanted,  although  some  of  the  later  boats  were  sup- 
plied with  sheets  and  coverlets.  The  berths  were  three 
high  along  the  wall  and  had  curtains  suspended  in  front 
of  them.  The  passengers  selected  their  berths  in  the  order 
in  which  they  had  secured  passage,  late  comers  being 
obliged  to  sleep  on  the  tables  or  on  the  floor.  Sometimes 
the  whole  floor  was  thus  covered.  Travelers  complained 
bitterly  of  the  mosquitoes.  Crude  as  this  may  seem  at  the 
present  time,  these  packets  were  no  doubt  the  forerunners 
of  the  present  Pullman  palace  car.  The  outside  decks  and 
the  roof  of  the  car  were  utilized  for  promenading,  loung- 
ing and  sight-seeing.  They  were  often  enlivened  by  music 
and  dancing. 

Greeley  7 speaks  of  the  ‘ ‘ ‘ cent  and  a half  a mile,  mile 
and  a half  an  hour,’  line  boats.”  The  expression  he  puts 
in  quotations  as  though  it  were  common  or  a slogan. 
Charges  on  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal  in  Indiana  were  for 
the  221  miles  from  Cincinnati  to  Fort  Wayne,  $6.75;  138 
miles  from  LaFayette  to  Fort  Wayne,  $3.75;  104  miles 
from  Fort  Wayne  to  Toledo,  $3.25.8  An  average  of  about 
three  cents  per  mile. 

The  canals  were  unable  to  compete  with  the  railroads 
when  time  became  an  element.  Passengers  would  not  be 
content  to  travel  36  miles  per  day  along  a tortuous  canal 
when  they  could  travel  a much  more  direct  route  at  nearly 
36  miles  per  hour.  The  swifter  speed  of  freight  traffic 
accelerated  business;  the  merchant’s  capital  could  be 
turned  over  more  frequently;  his  net  profits  were  conse- 
quently greater.  Is  there  any  wonder,  therefore,  that  the 
business  of  the  canal  continually  decreased  while  that  of 
the  railroad  as  continually  increased.  Many  canals  were 
actually  abandoned,  others  allowed  to  depreciate  from  want 
of  proper  maintenance,  and  now  only  occasional  barges  are 
run  to  transport  heavy  non-perishable  freight  such  as  grain, 
iron-ore,  and  coal.  And  of  these  commodities,  because  of 

’“Recollections  of  a Busy  Life,”  by  Horace  Greeley. 

s “ A History  of  Travel  in  America,  ’ ’ Dunbar. 


© Underwood  and  Underwood 


THE  SAULT  ST.  MARIE  CANAL 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


77 


better  terminal  facilities  and  the  time  element,  the  rail- 
roads soon  were  carrying  much  more  than  the  canals. 

Ship  Canals. — Reports  show  the  tonnage  of  the  Erie 
Canal  to  have  continually  decreased  from  2,031,735  tons 
in  1911  to  667,374  tons  in  1918.  The  total  tonnage  of  all 
the  New  York  state  canals  shows  a like  decrease  from 
3,097,068  tons  in  1911  to  1,159,270  tons  in  1918.  Notwith- 
standing such  records  there  are  those  who  firmly  believe 
canal  transportation  will  again  take  an  upward  trend  with 
better  terminal  facilities  and  possibly  electric  propulsion. 
There  is  one  class  of  canals  that  seems  to  have  held  its  own, 
that  is  ship  canals.  The  great  canal  and  locks  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie  transfer  a vast  lake  traffic  annually  from  one 
level  to  another  between  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron.  Vast 
quantities  of  iron-ore  are  brought  in  mammoth  vessels  by 
this  route  from  docks  near  the  Mesaba  mines  for  the  great 
iron  mills  at  Gary,  at  Cleveland,  at  Pittsburgh,  and  other 
points.  Similar  vessels  loaded  with  wheat,  oats,  and  flax 
from  the  Northwest  grain  fields  are  unloaded  at  Buffalo  for 
transportation  to  the  seaboard.  Agitation  has  been  going 
on  for  some  time  to  enlarge  the  Welland  Canal  and  its 
locks  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  thus  giving  seagoing 
vessels  the  opportunity  of  coming  up  by  way  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  and  traversing  the  entire  Great  Lake 
system.  The  ambition  of  cities  is  here  again  manifest ; 
Chicago  would  like  such  transportation,  but  it  would  not 
be  beneficial  to  New  York. 

A ship  canal  across  Cape  Cod  saves  70  miles  and 
considerable  time  and  makes  the  trip  much  less  dangerous 
from  New  York  to  Boston.  Ship  canals  within  the  islands 
along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  have  been  proposed  to 
make  safe  coast  commerce.  There  is  also  talk  of  a ship 
canal  from  Chicago  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  way  of  the 
Illinois  and  Mississippi  Rivers ; and  still  another  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Pittsburgh. 

The  Panama  Canal. — All  present-day  readers  are 
familiar  with  the  greatest  of  all  ship  canals,  the  Panama 
Canal,  constructed  by  the  Government  at  a cost  of  approxi- 


78 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


mately  $400,000,000,  and  open  to  the  ships  of  the  world. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  a canal  across  the  isthmus  had 
been  dreamed  of  practically  ever  since  Balboa  passed  over 
and  for  the  first  time  a white  man  saw  the  Pacific  from  the 
west  coast  of  America.  With  the  opening  of  the  Oregon 
territory  there  was  increased  interest  in  such  a canal. 
With  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  much  traffic  went 
by  way  of  Panama  being  freighted  across  and  transshipped 
on  the  other  side.  Soon  a railroad  was  established  for  that 
purpose.  Other  crossings,  too,  were  much  in  mind.  In 
1846  a treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  was  entered  into  with 
New  Granada,  afterwards  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
which  gave  the  United  States  a right  of  way  across  the 
Isthmus  by  any  available  method.  In  return  the  United 
States  agreed  to  guarantee  the  neutrality  of  the  Isthmus. 
Great  Britain  had  likewise  long  been  interested  in  a canal 
scheme  and  courted  Nicaragua.  Also  because  of  English 
settlements  at  Belize  or  British  Honduras  they  claimed 
rights  which  had  been  confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Versailles 
in  1773.  Another  route,  across  the  isthmus  of  Tehauntepec, 
had  also  assumed  importance.  In  1848  a company  of 
American  citizens  was  formed  for  and  began  at  once  to 
construct  a railway  across  the  isthmus  of  Panama.  An- 
other contracted  with  the  Nicaraguan  government  for  a 
canal  there.  A treaty  was  made  with  Nicaragua  whereby 
a concession  was  granted  the  company  for  the  waterway, 
the  United  States  guaranteeing  the  neutrality  of  the  way 
as  had  been  done  with  New  Grenada.  But  the  British 
government  claimed  control  of  the  eastern  terminus,  there- 
fore a treaty  had  to  be  negotiated  with  her.  As  a result 
the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty  was  signed  and  ratified  in  1850, 
whereby  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  agreed  to 
join  in  promoting  a canal  by  the  Nicaraguan  route  promis- 
ing that  neither  “would  obtain  or  maintain  for  itself  any 
exclusive  control  over  the  ship-canal,”  nor,  and  here  was 
the  joker,  “assume  or  exercise  any  dominion  . . . over  any 
part  of  Central  America.”  Neither  was  to  acquire  nor  have 
any  rights  the  other  did  not  have  and  they  both  guarantee 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


79 


the  neutrality  of  the  canal.  This,  apparently,  was  a viola- 
tion of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  so  far  as  it  did  allow  a 
European  nation  a foothold  upon  this  continent,  and  it 
was  contrary  to  the  Washingtonian  policy  of  avoiding  “en- 
tangling alliances.”  However,  it  was  considered  at  the 
time  to  be  a victory  for  American  diplomacy.  But  Great 
Britain  retained  her  hold  on  Belize  and  some  islands  along 
the  coast,  and  finally  it  was  made  known  that  before  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  Sir  Henry  Bulwer  had  left  with  Clayton 
a memorandum  to  the  effect  that  British  renunciation  in 
Central  America  should  not  apply  to  “Belize”  or  any  of 
its  “dependencies.”  Greytown,  a British  trading  post, 
had  been  established  as  a “free”  city  at  the  eastern  ter- 
minus of  the  Nicaraguan  route  through  British  influence 
and  support. 

In  1851  Greytown  levied  tribute  upon  the  steamers  of  the 
transit  company.  One  of  these  refused  to  pay  and  was 
fired  upon  by  a British  man-of-war,  the  fiction  of  Grey- 
town being  a “free  city”  apparently  went  glimmering. 
The  situation  was  critical  and  for  some  time  looked  as 
though  a war  might  result.  Meanwhile  the  Accessory 
Transit  Company  continued  in  a state  of  trouble  with  the 
Greytown  government.  So  bad  was  it  that  the  United 
States  vessel  Cyane  was  called  upon  to  protect  the  build- 
ings of  the  Canal  Company  from  destruction.  Conditions 
remained  strained,  feelings  ran  high,  until  in  1854  one  of 
the  officers  of  a company  steamer  killed  an  individual  and 
in  a riot  which  followed  the  mob  attacked  the  United  States 
consul.  Lieutenant  Hollins,  commanding  officer  of  the 
Cyane,  demanded  reparation,  and  as  this  was  not  forth- 
coming he  bombarded  and  destroyed  the  town.  This  accen- 
tuated the  trouble  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  but  did  not  particularly  enhance  the  building  of 
the  Nicaraguan  canal. 

About  this  time  Great  Britain  became  involved  in  the 
Crimean  War  while  in  the  United  States  the  slavery 
question  divided  the  country.  Some  hot-headed  southern- 
ers wished  forcibly  to  annex  Nicaragua  and  filibusters 


80 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


actually  joined  in  some  of  the  “revolutions”  which  are 
almost  always  in  progress  in  Central  American  States  with 
the  idea  of  extending  slave  territory.9  Through  one  of 
these  a man  by  the  name  of  Walker  had  made  himself  head 
of  Nicaragua  and  for  two  years  remained  a dictator.  His 
rule  was  marked  by  severity  and  a series  of  acts  that  won 
him  the  enmity  of  the  Central  American  States  and  also 
that  of  the  Accessory  Transit  Company,  whose  charter  and 
steamers  he  confiscated.  He  had  secured  the  presidency 
and  opened  the  state  to  slavery;  he  had  also  been  able  to 
get  recognition  at  Washington.  But  another  revolution 
broke  out  and  he  was  driven  out  in  1857. 

The  action  of  Walker  had  destroyed  American  influence 
in  Central  America.  In  the  United  States  opinion  was 
divided.  Slavery  enthusiasts  openly  advocated  control  of 
any  transit  route  across  the  isthmus  and  that  “no  power 
on  earth  should  be  suffered  to  impede.”10  This  and 
numerous  other  troubles  which  followed,  off  and  on  inter- 
mittently, delayed  and  prevented  canal  construction. 

French  Participation. — After  the  opening  of  the  Suez 
Canal  in  1869  by  the  French  an  organization  of  French 
scientists  made  a careful  study  of  the  various  routes  across 
the  Isthmus  and  decided  the  one  at  Panama  to  be  the  most 
feasible.  As  a result,  in  1875,  De  Lesseps,  the  engineer  of 
the  Suez  Canal,  began  a careful  survey  of  that  route  and 
in  1878,  Lucien  Bonaparte  Wyse,  of  the  French  Navy,  se- 
cured from  the  United  States  of  Colombia  (which  had 
succeeded  New  Granada)  a concession  giving  a company 
to  be  organized  by  him  exclusive  right  to  construct  a canal 
and  railroad  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Neutrality 
was  to  be  maintained  and  troops  transported  only  by  per- 
mission of  Colombia.  In  return  for  this  privilege  and  cer- 
tain grants  of  land  Colombia  was  to  receive  5 per  cent  of 
the  gross  tolls  collected.  The  concession  was  for  ninety- 
nine  years  and  the  canal  was  to  be  opened  within  eighteen 

9 Smith:  “Parties  and  Slavery,”  (“American  Nation,”  Vol. 

XVIII). 

'“Democratic  Platform,  1856. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


81 


years.  While  it  was  claimed  this  concession  did  not  con- 
flict with  the  treaty  of  1846  between  New  Granada  and 
the  United  States,  nevertheless  it  provided  that  the  latter 
might  share  in  its  advantages.  The  concession  was  trans- 
ferred to  De  Lesseps,  who  arranged  for  an  International 
Congress  of  Geographical  Sciences,  which  assembled  in 
Paris,  May  15,  1879.  The  United  States  was  one  of  the 
twenty-five  nations  there  represented.  Fourteen  projects 
involving  seven  different  routes  were  discussed  and  in- 
cluded all  that  were  considered  feasible. 

Without  going  into  detailed  description  some  of  these 
routes  may  be  mentioned.  The  Tehauntepec  route  was 
148  miles  long  and  required  120  locks,  would  take  about 
twelve  days  to  pass  a vessel  through,  and  was  in  the  region 
of  earthquakes.  The  Nicaraguan  Route  was  favored  by 
many — it  was  180  miles  long,  needed  17  locks,  but  it  re- 
quired an  actual  construction  of  only  60  miles  as  existing 
rivers  and  lakes  could  be  utilized.  A route  from  the 
Chiriqui  Gulf  to  the  Gulf  Dulce,  another  from  the  Gulf 
of  Darien  by  way  of  the  Atrato  and  Napipi  Rivers,  and 
another  into  the  San  Miguel  Bay,  were  discarded  for 
various  reasons.  The  choice  centered  upon  the  route  from 
Colon  to  Panama  by  way  of  the  Culebra  pass  and  the 
Chagres  River.  This  route,  the  shortest  of  all,  was  only  45 
miles  in  length,  but  there  were  several  disadvantages.  The 
Chagres  River  must  be  diverted  by  a large  dam  or  carried 
for  miles  in  an  aqueduct. 

A company  (Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Inter- 
oceanique)  was  organized  and  popular  subscriptions  in- 
vited. It  was  claimed  that  further  than  granting  the 
charter  the  French  Government  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  canal.  Stock  could  be  owned  by  people  of  all  nations, 
but  the  United  States  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  measure, 
although  no  formal  action  to  prevent  the  construction  of 
the  canal  was  taken.  Several  promotion  schemes  were  ad- 
vanced by  private  individuals  to  head  off  the  French  and 
Congress  was  petitioned  for  aid.  Captain  Eads,  who  by 
jetties  had  deepened  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River, 


82 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


and  an  engineer  of  note,  suggested  a ship  railway  across 
the  isthmus  of  Tehauntepec.  A “Marine  Canal  Company 
of  Nicaragua’’  wanted  Congress  to  guarantee  its  capital 
stock;  another  Nicaraguan  company  had  Ex-President 
Grant  as  a sponsor.11  The  surveys  made  by  the  United 
States  of  the  Panama  and  of  the  Atrato-Napipi  routes  in 
1875,  were  printed  by  order  of  Congress.  In  1880  the 
House  asked  the  president  for  the  report  of  surveys  made 
in  1872  and  submitted  in  1875  which  had  not  yet  become 
public ; this  report  recommended  the  Nicaraguan  route. 

From  time  to  time  indignation  was  manifested  in  the 
United  States  against  allowing  a foreign  country  to  gain  a 
foothold  even  though  by  a neutral  company  on  the  Ameri- 
can continent.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  was  brought  out ; the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  was  presented;  the  reports  of  Con- 
gressional Commissions  were  referred  to  as  arguments 
against  the  De  Lesseps  Canal.  Various  other  complications 
entered,  one  of  which  was  a possible  conflict  of  authority  if 
in  case  of  a revolution  on  the  Isthmus  it  were  necessary  to 
send  troops  by  the  United  States  to  maintain  the  neutrality 
of  the  railroad  and  by  France  troops  to  maintain  the 
neutrality  of  the  canal. 

Sweeping  aside  these  questions  De  Lesseps  made  prepa- 
ration to  construct  the  canal,  and  landed  a force  of  seventy 
engineers,  superintendents  and  workmen  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  in  1881.  De  Lesseps  planned  a tide-water 
canal  which  would  require  a cut  of  285  feet  in  the  Culebra 
pass.  Difficulties  encountered  from  slides  in  this  cut  and 
other  reasons  made  it  advisable  afterwards  to  change  the 
plans.  De  Lesseps  purchased  much  machinery  in  Europe 
and  America  at  large  expense ; bought  the  Panama  railroad 
for  $17,000,000,  because  the  line  of  the  Canal  crossed  it 
frequently  and  it  could  be  utilized  for  transporting  ma- 
terials, and  began  the  operation  of  opening  up  the  cut  at 
various  points  along  its  course.  The  engineers  estimated 
the  cost  at  843,000,000  francs;  this,  De  Lesseps  cut  to 

u North  American  Review,  Vol.  CXXXII,  p.  107. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals  83 

600,000,000  francs,  and  set  the  opening  ceremonies  for 
1888. 

During  the  Garfield  administration  Secretary  of  State 
Blaine  held  out  for  a strong  American  policy  and  informed 
Colombia,  which  was  charged  with  making  arrangements 
whereby  certain  European  powers  might  assume  joint 
guarantee  over  the  canal,  that  “any  movement  in  the  sense 
of  supplementing  the  guarantee  contained  (in  the  treaty 
of  1846)  would  necessarily  be  regarded  by  this  government 
as  an  uncalled  for  intrusion  into  a field  where  the  local 
and  general  interest  of  the  United  States  of  America 
should  be  considered  before  those  of  any  other  power  save 
those  of  Colombia  alone.”12  England  claimed  to  be  a new 
world  power  equally  interested  with  the  United  States  in 
maintaining  the  neutrality  of  the  canal.  Blaine  proposed 
amending  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  so  that  the  United 
States  could  fortify  the  canal,  also  to  annul  that  part  ex- 
tending it  to  any  other  practical  routes  so  that  the  United 
States  might  be  free  to  build  a canal  at  Panama  or  else- 
where as  it  chose.  Garfield’s  death  and  Blaine’s  retirement 
from  the  cabinet  ended  for  the  time  being  policies  regard- 
ing South  and  Central  Americas  that  would  either  have 
brought  the  United  States  in  trouble  with  England  or  se- 
cured to  her  complete  control  of  the  canal  and  also,  per- 
haps, much  of  South  American  trade.  A treaty  with 
Nicaragua  allowing  the  construction  of  a canal  wholly 
under  American  control,  the  United  States  guaranteeing 
the  integrity  of  the  territory  of  Nicaragua,  which  was  un- 
doubtedly a violation  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  and 
prepared  by  Frelinghuysen,  Secretary  of  State  under 
Arthur,  for  the  purpose  of  testing  that  treaty,  was  with- 
drawn by  President  Cleveland  who  was  inaugurated  before 
its  confirmation. 

There  was  a growing  feeling  that  the  De  Lesseps  com- 
pany would  never  finish  the  canal.  The  company  had 
spent  $10,000,000  more  than  the  estimate  of  600,000,000 
francs  ($120,000,000),  and  had  not  paid  the  $17,000,000 

12  ‘ ‘ American  Nation,”  Yol.  XXIII. 


84 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


promised  for  the  Panama  railway.  In  fact  it  was  bank- 
rupt. While  a large  amount  of  excavation  had  been  done, 
it  was  small  compared  with  what  was  necessary.  A mag- 
nificent plant  with  much  costly  machinery  was  going  to 
decay. 

The  Spanish-Ameriean  war  brought  forcibly  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  the  need  of  an  interoceanic  canal. 

In  1900  a treaty  negotiated  by  John  Hay  and  Sir  Julian 
Pauncefote  embodying  some  modifications  of  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  had  been  so  amended  in  the  Senate  that 
Great  Britain  would  not  accept  it.  A new  treaty  made  in 
view  of  the  Senate  amendments  and  the  British  objections 
was  submitted  a few  months  after  Roosevelt  became 
President.  It  abrogated  parts  of  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty  and  gave  to  the  United  States  full  ownership  and 
control  of  the  proposed  canal.  Colonel  Roosevelt  had 
strongly  advocated  this  while  governor  of  New  York  before 
his  accession  to  the  presidency.13 

Two  commissions  in  the  past  had  reported  favorably  on 
the  Nicaraguan  route.  A third  commission  with  Admiral 
John  G.  Walker  as  chairman  was  appointed  and  authorized 
in  1899  to  expend  a million  dollars,  if  necessary,  to  make  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  several  routes.  In  1901  the 
committee  reported  that  the  “Commission  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  most  practicable  and  feasible  route  for  an  Isthmian 
Canal,  to  be  under  the  control,  management,  and  owner- 
ship of  the  United  States  is  that  known  as  the  Nicaraguan 
route.  ’ ’ 14  The  Commission  placed  the  estimated  cost  of 
the  Nicaraguan  Canal  at  $189,864,062;  of  completing  the 
Panama  Canal  at  $144,233,358 ; and  that  to  this  latter  sum 
should  be  added  the  cost  of  acquiring  the  rights  of  the 
French  company.  The  company  asked  $109,141,500,  but 
the  Commission  estimated  its  worth  at  $40,000,000.  The 
company  considered  this  unfair  but  finally  offered  to 

““Theodore  Roosevelt, ’’  by  W.  R.  Thayer,  180.  “John  Hay,” 
by  W.  R.  Thayer,  II,  339-41. 

14  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  Report,  Sen.  Doc.  57th  Congress., 
1st  session,  No.  54. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


85 


negotiate  with  the  United  States  and  sell  on  the  best  terms 
possible.  The  Commission  made  a supplementary  report 
recommending  the  Panama  route  and  purchase  of  the 
French  company’s  work  and  rights  at  $40,000,000.  An 
act  was  signed  by  the  president,  June  28,  1902,  which  had 
passed  Congress,  not  without  opposition,  authorizing  the 
president  to  acquire  control  of  the  rights  and  property  of 
the  Panama  Canal  Company,  to  acquire  perpetual  control 
of  a strip  of  land  not  less  than  6 miles  in  width,  across  the 
Isthmus,  to  proceed  as  soon  as  these  rights  were  acquired 
to  construct  a canal  through  “The  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission” created  by  the  act;  but  should  he  be  unable  to  get 
satisfactory  title  to  the  property  of  the  French  company 
and  the  control  of  territory  from  Colombia,  then  the  presi- 
dent was  authorized  to  negotiate  with  Nicaragua  and 
build  a canal  along  the  Nicaraguan  route. 

Attorney  General  Knox  reported  that  the  French  com- 
pany could  give  a clear  title ; a convention  was  entered  into 
by  which  the  United  States  upon  the  payment  of 
$10,000,000  in  cash  and  an  annual  rental  of  $250,000  per 
year  was  to  receive  the  necessary  control  and  strip  of  land. 
The  Senate  ratified  this  March  17,  1903.  When  it  went 
to  the  Colombian  congress,  however,  it  was  rejected  by 
unanimous  vote.  President  Roosevelt  declared  Colombia 
wanted  to  wait  until  they  could  forfeit  the  title  of  the 
French  company  then  sell  to  the  United  States  for  $40,- 
000, 000. 15  This  view  may  and  possibly  was  erroneous. 
There  was  again  a demand  that  the  Nicaraguan  route  be 
chosen.  But  on  November  3,  1903,  the  Panamanians,  in- 
stigated by  the  French  company,  whose  entire  concession 
and  undertaking  would  revert  to  Colombia  in  less  than  a 
year,16  seeing  their  interests  being  sacrificed  by  the  cupidity 
of  Colombia,  consummated  a revolution.  Many  were  of  the 
opinion  that  the  president  of  the  United  States  was 
particeps  criminis.  In  a letter  to  a friend  17  dated  October 

“Message  of  January  4,  1904,  Sen.  Doc.,  58th  Cong.  2nd  Sess.  No. 
53,  pp.  5-26. 

““Theodore  Roosevelt,”  by  William  Roscoe  Thayer,  p.  184  et  seq. 

17  Letter  to  Albert  Shaw  by  President  Theodore  Roosevelt.  Literary 
Digest,  October  29,  1904. 


86 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


10,  1903,  he  says,  “I  cast  aside  the  proposition  at  this  time 
to  foment  the  secession  of  Panama.  Whatever  other  gov- 
ernments can  do,  the  United  States  can  not  go  into  the 
securing,  by  such  underhand  means,  the  cession.  Privately, 
I freely  say  to  you  that  I should  be  delighted  if  Panama 
were  an  independent  state,  or  if  it  made  itself  so  at  this 
moment ; but  for  me  to  say  so  publicly  would  amount  to  an 
instigation  of  a revolt,  and  therefore  I cannot  say  it.” 
Many  years  later  when  chaffingly  accused  of  being  a 
wicked  conspirator,  Mr.  Roosevelt  is  quoted  as  having  said : 
‘‘What  was  the  use?  The  other  fellows  in  Paris  and  New 
York  had  taken  all  the  risk  and  were  doing  all  the  work. 
Instead  of  trying  to  run  a parallel  conspiracy,  I had  only 
to  sit  still  and  profit  by  their  plot — if  it  succeeded.”  18 
The  revolution  was  bloodless  except  for  the  accidental 
killing  of  a Chinaman  and  a dog.  Colombia,  however,  as 
soon  as  possible  sent  troops  to  Colon.  The  following  day 
the  U.  S.  Ship  Nashville  landed  fifty  marines.  The  next 
day  the  Colombian  troops  left,  said  by  some  to  have  been 
bribed.  A Panamanian  government  was  formed;  on 
November  6th,  the  American  consul  was  ordered  from 
Washington  to  recognize  it;  a week  later  their  minister 
was  formally  received  by  President  Roosevelt.  On 
January  4,  1904,  the  president  pi’esented  for  ratification  a 
treaty.  The  Senate  ratified  it  February  23,  1904.  Thus 
rapidly  did  things  move.  By  this  agreement  the  United 
States  secured  from  the  Republic  of  Panama  a zone  of 
land  10  miles  wide  for  the  canal  with  full  power  over  it. 
In  return  the  United  States  guaranteed  the  independence 
of  the  Panama  republic,  and  agreed  to  pay  $10,000,000 
upon  exchange  of  ratifications  and  the  sum,  beginning 
nine  years  thereafter,  of  $250,000  per  annum. 

The  Colombians  protested  and  sent  their  former 
president  General  Reyes  to  Washington  to  persuade  the 
Government  to  abrogate  its  compact  with  Panama.  The 
counsel  for  Colombia  is  quoted  as  saying  that  ‘‘Reyes  was 
authorized  to  accept  $8,000,000  for  all  the  desired  con- 
u “Theodore  Boosevelt,  ” by  W.  E.  Thayer,  p.  190. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


87 


cessions  and  he  would  have  taken  $5,000,000,  but  Hay  and 
Roosevelt  were  so  foolish  they  wouldn ’t  accept.  ”19  Be  that  as 
it  may,  the  effort  was  several  times  made  to  get  for  Colombia 
a gratuity  much  greater  than  Reyes  would  have  accepted, 
and  in  1921  Congress  appropriated  for  that  purpose  $25,- 
000,000,  thus,  in  a way,  acknowledging  that  Colombia  was 
wronged  and  that  the  United  States  had  been  profited 
thereby. 

A commission  was  formed  to  undertake  the  construction 
of  the  canal.  This  was  changed  two  or  three  times  during 
the  construction.  The  immensity  of  the  work  necessary  to 
make  a tidewater  canal,  and  the  fact  that  its  completion 
would  be  materially  delayed,  caused  the  abandonment  of 
that  plan.  Three  sets  of  locks  were  provided — at  Gatun, 
Pedro  Miguel,  and  Miraflores.  A great  dam  was  built 
across  the  lower  end  of  the  Chagres,  entirely  blocking  the 
flow  of  that  river  and  creating  a large  artificial  lake  165 
square  miles  in  area  whose  maximum  height  is  85  feet 
above  sea  water.  This  lake  serves  for  storage  water  neces- 
sary to  manipulate  the  canal  and  locks;  any  surplus  flows 
through  a spillway  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Great  break- 
waters were  constructed  to  make  smooth  harbors  at  Colon 
and  Panama  and  prevent  silting.  The  canal  is  at  sea  level 
to  Gatun,  8 miles,  then  three  steps  lead  it  to  Gatun  Lake ; 
it  continues  on  that  level  for  32  miles ; then  down  one  step 
at  Pedro  Miguel  to  Miraflores  Lake,  55  feet  above  sea  level ; 
thence  through  the  Miraflores  locks  to  sea  level  again  and 
then  out  to  deep  water  in  the  Pacific,  11  miles.  The  locks 
are  1000  feet  long  and  large  enough  in  every  way  to  ac- 
commodate the  largest  ships  afloat.  These  great  locks  with 
their  mammoth  gates,  tunnels  for  filling,  and  mechanical 
means  of  operation  are  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the 
modern  world.  The  cost  was  about  $400,000,000  to  date  of 
opening.  Since  that  time  considerable  sums  have  been 
spent  in  fortifications,  improvements,  and  maintenance — 
several  large  slides  having  occurred  in  the  Culebra  Cut. 
The  “total  amount  expended  or  advanced  to  disbursing 

19  ‘ ‘ Theodore  Eoosevelt,  ’ ’ by  W.  E.  Thayer,  p.  186. 


88 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


officers  for  purchase,  construction,  fortification,  etc.,  to 
June  30,  1919,  $452,075,376.  ” 20  The  tolls  amount  to  about 
$7,000,000  annually. 

The  principal  arguments  in  favor  of  the  United  States 
building  the  inter-oceanic  canal  were  its  utility  as  a meas- 
ure of  preparedness  for  and  strategy  in  case  of  war.  By 
furnishing  quick  passage  between  the  east  and  west  coasts 
the  navy  necessary  for  the  protection  of  these  coasts  could 
be  reduced  one  half.  With  the  canal  entirely  in  the  control 
of  the  Government  no  foreign  nation  could  take  advantage 
of  it  to  our  detriment.  Notwithstanding  the  need  of  the 
canal  for  war  purposes,  the  benefits  to  be  derived  by  the 
commerce  of  peace  will  doubtless  be  manifold  more 
valuable.  It  furnishes  cheap  transportation  between  the 
west  and  east  coasts,  and  shortens  materially  the  distance 
from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  western  South  America  as 
well  as  to  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  During  the 
year  1920,  “2814  ships  representing  11,236,119  tons  of 
cargo,  passed  through  the  waterway”  being  a considerable 
increase  over  any  preceding  year.21  Of  these  45.5  per  cent 
were  registered  United  States  vessels,  more  than  any  other 
one  nation.  Fuel-oil,  nitrates,  steel  and  iron  hold  leading 
places  in  the  line  of  commodities  carried. 

River  Transportation. — As  has  already  been  stated 
streams  and  rivers  were  early  adopted  as  a means  for 
transportation.  Birch-bark  and  dug-out  canoes,  flat-boats 
and  keel-boats,  with  and  without  sails,  and  rafts  were  ex- 
tensively used.  For  small  boats  paddles  and  oars  furnished 
the  means  of  navigation,  while  several  pairs  of  oars  were 
utilized  on  the  larger  boats.  In  shallow  water  poling  was 
much  in  vogue.  Two  men  by  pushing  poles  against  the 
bottom  of  the  stream  from  opposite  sides  of  a small  boat 
could  easily  propel  it.  On  still  larger  boats  and  rafts  the 
men  as  they  pushed  walked  toward  the  stern  as  far  as 
possible  while  the  craft  moved  through  the  water  under 
them.  A third  man  held  it  with  his  pole  until  the  first 

““The  American  Year  Book,”  1919.  Appleton,  N.  Y. 

51  Panama  Canal  Record. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


89 


two  regained  a position  near  the  front  for  another  push. 
By  this  arduous  and  crude  means  boats  were  propelled  up 
shallow  but  often  swift  currents.  On  the  larger  rivers 
sails  were  employed.  Going  downstream  offered  little 
difficulty  except  to  keep  clear  of  sand  bars  and  snags. 
Sails,  oars,  and  poles  were  sometimes  relied  upon  to  assist 
the  current  in  making  speed.  Large  rafts  of  logs  and 
lumber  made  by  tying  timbers  together  with  wooden  pins 
were  floated  down  the  rivers  and  broken  up  and  sold  when 
they  reached  their  destination.  Furs,  hides,  bacon,  cured 
hams,  or  jerked-meat  might  form  a cargo,  stored  during 
transit,  in  a small  cabin  erected  at  the  center  of  the  raft, 
which  might  occupy  from  400  to  600  square  feet. 

The  construction  of  a practicable  steamboat  in  1807  by 
Robert  Fulton22  and  another  by  John  Stevens,  the  same 
year,  revolutionized  both  river  and  sea  navigation.  While 
many  attempts  had  been  made  to  utilize  the  steam  engine 
for  propelling  boats,  and  some  of  them  mechanically  suc- 
cessful, Fulton’s  was  the  first  boat  built  and  adapted  for 
the  conveyance  of  freight  and  passengers  on  a scale  com- 
mercially successful.  Fulton  had  had  the  confidence  and 
backing  of  R.  R.  Livingston  and  the  firm  of  Fulton  & 
Livingston  was  formed.  This  firm  secured  a monopoly  for 
operating  steam  vessels  in  the  waters  of  the  state  of  New 
York.  The  first  boat,  the  Clermont , named  after  Living- 
ston’s estate  on  the  Hudson  River,  was  130  feet  long,  18 
feet  beam,  and  7 feet  deep,  with  a burden  of  160  tons.  The 
Boulton  & Watt  engine  had  been  brought  from  England 
the  year  previous  by  Fulton  and  the  boat  built  for  it.  The 
vessel  made  a successful  trial  trip  to  Albany,  August  7 to 
9,  and  returned  the  following  two  days ; her  running  speed 
had  only  averaged  about  5 miles  an  hour,  but  she  had 
demonstrated  the  practicability  of  steam  navigation  on  in- 
land waters.  Following  close  after  this  event,  Stevens, 
who  had  been  experimenting  for  years  and,  it  is  claimed, 

22  For  a long  list  of  steamboats  built  in  America,  and  operated 
under  their  own  power  prior  to  Fulton 's  Clermont,  see  “A  History 
of  Travel  in  America,  ’ ’ by  Seymour  Dunbar. 


90 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


had  launched  a screw  propeller  vessel  driven  by  steam  as 
early  as  1804,  perfected  his  vessel,  but  because  of  Fulton 
& Livingston’s  monopoly  took  it  to  the  Delaware  River  at 
Philadelphia.  The  trip  around  by  sea  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  steam  navigation  on  the  ocean.  Very  shortly 
thereafter  Fulton  & Livingston  had  placed  a fleet  of  their 
vessels  on  the  Hudson  River  and  Long  Island  Sound,  and 
had  begun  to  build  them  at  Pittsburgh  while  John  Stevens 
& Sons  had  their  vessels  on  the  Delaware  and  Connecticut 
Rivers.  Soon  all  navigable  waters  were  covered  with  steam 
propelled  vessels. 

Prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  steamboat  Mississippi 
River  traffic  had  been,  as  has  been  stated,  carried  on  by  flat 
boats,  rafts,  and  perhaps  some  twenty  barges  23  of  a better 
quality.  These  latter  had  been  making  one  round  trip  a 
year  requiring  sixty  days  down  and  ninety  days  back  from 
Louisville  to  New  Orleans.  This  time,  by  1822,  had  been 
reduced  to  seven  days  down  and  sixteen  days  up.  By  1830 
all  the  navigable  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  were 
traversed  by  steamboats  and  the  produce  of  a western 
empire  teeming  through  the  portals  was  rapidly  making 
New  Orleans  a great  city.  The  value  of  these  commodities 
were  given  as  approximating  $26,000,000  annually.24  In 
1860  a writer  said:  “upward  of  two  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  merchandise  are  annually  brought  to  this 
market.”  25  New  Orleans  was  an  extremely  busy  place  with 
all  the  picturesqueness  of  pioneer  cities  generally.  Rank- 
ing twelfth  of  the  cities  of  the  United  States  in  1790,  it  had 
steadily  climbed  up  to  third  place  in  1840, 26  when  the 
northern  cities  through  the  influence  of  the  railroads  and 
the  decline  of  river  traffic  began  to  outstrip  it.  The  levee, 
an  embankment  along  the  river,  several  feet  higher  than 
the  city,  was  bordered  by  a long  line  of  warehouses  on  the 
land  side  and  by  quays  extending  into  the  river  on  the 

^“American  Nation,”  Vol.  XIV. 

54  “American  Nation,”  Vol.  XIV,  p.  105. 

25  Henry  Howe,  ‘ ‘ Historical  Sketch  of  the  "West.  ’ ’ 

21  Statistical  Atlas  1900.  12th  Census  of  the  U.  S. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


91 


other  side.  Miles  of  ships,  boats,  and  barges  were  anchored 
along  the  levee  as  automobiles  are  now  parked  along  a 
street,  heads  in.  A contemporaneous  writer  describes  it 
thus : 

The  New  Orleans  levee  is  one  continuous  landing-place,  or 
quay,  4 miles  in  extent,  and  of  an  average  width  of  100  feet.  It 
is  15  feet  above  low  water  mark,  and  6 feet  above  the  level  of  the 
city,  to  which  it  is  graduated  by  an  easy  descent.  During  the 
business  season,  from  November  to  July,  the  river  front  of  the 
levee  is  crowded  with  vessels,  of  all  sizes  and  from  all  quarters 
of  the  world,  with  hundreds  of  large  and  splendid  steamboats, 
barges,  flat-boats,  etc.  The  levee  presents  a most  busy  and 
animated  prospect.  Here  are  seen  piles  of  cotton  bales,  vast 
numbers  of  barrels  of  pork,  flour  and  liquors  of  various  kinds, 
bales  of  foreign  and  domestic  manufactures,  hogsheads  of  sugar, 
crates  of  ware,  etc.,  draymen  with  their  carts,  buyers,  sellers, 
laborers,  etc.  Valuable  products  from  the  head  waters  of  the 
Missouri,  3000  miles  distant,  center  here.  The  Illinois,  the  Ohio, 
the  Arkansas  and  Red  Rivers,  with  the  Mississippi,  are  all 
tributaries  to  this  commercial  depot. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  river  traffic  many  other  cities 
were  springing  into  importance.  Many  of  these  later  be- 
came centers  of  railroad  activity  and  thus  retained  or  even 
bettered  their  rank.  Others  gradually  wasted  away  until 
they  are  mere  hamlets  to-day. 

The  times  seem  to  have  been  ripe  when  Fulton’s  Clermont 
appeared,  for  almost  immediately  the  steamboat  industry 
thrived.  During  the  first  ten  years  131  steam  vessels  had 
been  built  and  by  1832,  474  ;27  in  1836  and  1837,  145  and 
158  respectively  were  launched.  Building  was  for  a few 
years  checked  by  business  depression  but  soon  revived  and 
in  1846  there  were  constructed  225  steam  vessels.  The 
Civil  War  reduced  the  number;  immediately  following 
business  sprang  up  again  and  taking  into  account  coasts, 
rivers,  and  lakes  has  continued  brisk  ever  since. 

With  the  growth  in  the  number  of  vessels,  up  until  rail- 
roads began  to  monopolize  travel  and  freight,  the  accom- 

21  Charles  Barnard  in  The  Century  Magazine,  Vol.  XXXVIII, 
from  which  also  is  derived  information  relative  to  dimensions  and 
decorations  of  steam  vessels,  pp.  353-372. 


92 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


modations  and  speed  were  continually  improved  until  river 
and  sound  boats  were  frequently  spoken  of  as  “floating 
palaces.”  Packets  were  built  to  accommodate  several 
hundred  passengers,  with  staterooms,  saloons,  dining  rooms, 
bathrooms,  barber  shops,  and  other  features.  The  river 
steamboat  may  be  said  to  be  a development  of  the  pole-boat 
or  flat-boat.  On  account  of  the  shoals  they  must  be  broad 
and  shallow.  The  paddle  wheels  on  the  sides  are  operated 
independently  in  order  to  facilitate  quick  turning.  The 
weight  of  engines,  boilers,  fuel  bunkers,  freight  and 
passenger  burden,  are  distributed  fairly  well  over  the 
entire  surface.  Some  of  the  best  lower  Mississippi  boats 
had  a length  of  hull  of  300  feet,  a width  of  50  feet  and 
depth  of  hold  of  9 feet.  The  boat  fully  loaded  drew  about 
10  feet  of  water,  when  light,  4 feet.  “Mark  twain,”  6 feet, 
represented  the  shallowest  water  the  vessels  piloted  by 
Samuel  L.  Clemens  could  navigate ; after  quitting  steam- 
boating he  adopted  that  term  for  a nom-de-plume, 
under  which  his  inimitable  writings  were  published.28  The 
main  deck  overhangs  the  hull  and  is  about  90  feet  wide. 
A complete  system  of  ties  and  braces  above  the  hull  gives 
it  strength  and  stiffness.  Modern  boats  are  electric  lighted 
and  have  swinging  gangplanks,  capstans,  and  all  the  recent 
power  improvements  for  the  rapid  handling  of  freight  and 
passengers.  The  staterooms  are  erected  on  the  saloon  deck 
with  doors  opening  into  the  saloon  and  on  a narrow 
passageway  along  the  outside.  The  saloon  generally  ex- 
tends the  full  length  of  the  house,  giving  a large  well- 
lighted  room,  used  as  a lounging  and  dining  room.  Above 
this  is  another  deck  on  which  are  officers  ’ quarters  and  above 
all  fully  glassed  in  is  the  pilot  house.  The  freight  capacity 
of  these  boats  is  given  as  1500  tons,  and  there  are  70  state- 
rooms to  accommodate  140  passengers.  Deck  passage  could 
be  provided  for  a number  more.  The  cost  of  a “floating 
palace”  was  in  the  ’eighties  from  $100,000  to  $120,000. 

Extremely  handsome,  well  equipped,  and  finely  decorated 
boats  ply  regularly  on  the  Hudson  River  and  on  Long 

“ See  “Life  on  the  Mississippi,’’  by  Mark  Twain,  p.  117. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


93 


Island  Sound.  Some  of  the  vessels  of  one  line  are  over  400 
feet  long  and  50  feet  wide.  The  decks  are  about  90  feet 
wide  and  they  have  over  350  state  rooms ; many  of  them  are 
magnificently  equipped. 

O ’Hanlon’s  “Irish  Emigrants’  Guide  to  the  United 
States,”  published  in  1851,  would  indicate  that  all  travel- 
ing in  that  day  was  not  as  comfortable  as  might  be  inferred 
from  the  preceding.  With  regard  to  steamboats  it  says : 

These  have  been  termed  “flying  palaces,”  and  many  of  them 
are  fitted  up  in  style  of  great  magnificence.  But  the  comfort 
of  traveling  by  them  is  confined  to  cabin  passengers,  state  rooms, 
accommodating  two  persons  each,  in  separate  berths,  are  appro- 
priated for  retirement  by  day  and  for  rest  at  night;  ladies  and 
gentlemen  have  separate  cabins,  but  dine  at  the  same  table,  which 
is  set  out  in  the  “social  hall,”  and  stocked  with  a variety  of 
luxuries.  . . . The  deck  passengers  are  immediately  under  the 
cabin,  and  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  boat. 

A few  berths  are  fitted  up  for  their  reception  without  bedding. 
Provisions  must  be  provided  at  their  own  expense,  and  also  a 
mode  of  preparing  them.  Sometimes  numbers  are  huddled  to- 
gether on  board  without  having  room  to  move,  or  stretch  them- 
selves out  for  rest;  the  inconvenience  of  this  mode  of  traveling 
can  hardly  be  appreciated  without  being  experienced. 

It  is  also  stated  that  steamboat  traveling  was  dangerous 
because  of  the  explosions.  It  is  true  there  were  a number 
of  boiler  explosions.  Mark  Twain  mentions  one  of  the  very 
worst,29  the  explosion  of  the  Pennsylvania.  He  also  dis- 
cusses the  subject  of  racing,  which  after  the  Government 
rules  regarding  steam  pressure  went  into  effect,  he  claims 
not  to  have  been  dangerous.  One  of  the  later  races,  that 
between  the  Robert  E.  Lee  and  the  Natchez  in  1870  was  an 
event  of  national  interest.  The  time  of  the  Robert  E.  Lee 
from  New  Orleans  to  St.  Louis  was  3 days  18  hours  and 
14  minutes  from  dock  to  dock.  Mark  Twain  claims  the 
fastest  long-distance  running  was  made  by  the  Eclipse  in 
1855  when  she  made  the  trip  from  New  Orleans  to  Cairo 
at  an  average  speed  “a  shade  under  fourteen  and  three- 
eighths  miles  per  hour.  ’ ’ 

m “Life  on  the  Mississippi,”  by  Mark  Twain,  Chapter  XX. 


94 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


An  idea  of  the  rates  charged  for  passenger  fare  and  for 
freight  traffic  on  steam-boats  may  be  obtained  from  the 
following. 

In  1816  from  New  York  to  Albany  the  fare  was  $7,  about 
4 cents  per  mile.  For  way  stations  between  about  5 cents 
per  mile,  but  no  charge  less  than  $1.30 

Steamboat  Fares 


Date 

Between 

Distance 

Total 

Fare 

Per  Mile 
Cents 

1816 

New  York  and  Albany. 

145 

$7.00 

4 

1817 

New  York  to  Providence 

200 

10.00 

5 

1825 

Boston  to  Portland 

160 

5.00 

3 

\ 

1825 

Boston  to  Bath 

6.00 

1825 

Boston  to  Augusta 

7.00 

f W itn  meals 

1825 

Boston  to  East  Port .... 

275 

11.00 

4 

J 

1848 

New  York  to  Albany.  . . 

145 

.50 

.3 

1848 

New  York  to  Erie 

600 

7.50 

1.3 

1848 

New  York  to  Detroit. . . 

825 

8.50 

1 

1848 

New  York  to  Chicago.  . 

1520 

12.50 

. 7 

1848 

Baltimore  to  Richmond . 

378 

10.00 

1848 

Tuscaloosa  to  Mobile . . . 

675 

12.00 

1848 

Boston  and  New  York 

Sailing  1 

to  New  Orleans 

Packet  J 

■iU— ou 

* Warner’s  “Immigrant's  Guide  and  Citizen’s  Manual.” 


In  1817  from  Rhode  Island  to  New  York,  $10,  ap- 
proximately 5 cents  per  mile. 

The  Government ’s  Attitude  Toward  River  Improve- 
ment.— The  individual  states  had  been  encouraging  turn- 
pikes, canals,  and  other  interior  improvements  by  subscrib- 
ing and  underwriting  stock  in  private  companies  authorized 
to  build  and  operate  the  improvements.  Frequently 
monopolies  were  granted  to  operating  companies.31  States 

80  Dunbar,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America.” 

” March  18,  1786,  John  Fitch  was  granted  by  New  Jersey  ‘‘the 
sole  and  exclusive  right  of  constructing  making  using  and  employing 
or  navigating,  all  and  every  species  or  kind  of  boats,  impelled  by 
the  force  of  fire  or  steam  ’ ’ within  the  limits  of  that  state.  Delaware 
gave  him  similar  rights  in  1787  and  New  York,  likewise,  the  same 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


95 


were  jealous  of  each  other  and  hesitated  to  appropriate 
money  for  improvements  which  would  inure  to  the  benefit 
of  another  state,  and  frequently  an  improvement  in  one 
state  was  worthless  unless  joining  improvements  could  be 
made  in  neighboring  states.  Many  men,  believing  in  a large 
and  unified  nation  rather  than  a confederation  of  several 
small  nations  advocated  governmental  action.  Strict  con- 
stitutionalists and  states’  rights  men  objected.  President 
Madison  had  vetoed  Calhoun’s  Bonus  Bill  for  roads  and 
canals  upon  the  ground  that  the  constitution  did  not  vest 
Congress  with  power  to  undertake  such  improvements.32 
Calhoun  had  used  all  the  power  of  his  great  eloquence  based 
upon  the  ‘ ‘ common  defense  and  general  welfare  ’ ’ clause  of 
the  constitution  in  favor  of  such  improvements.  He  con- 
sidered it  the  duty  of  Congress  to  “bind  the  republic  to- 
gether with  a perfect  system  of  roads  and  canals.  ’ ’ He  ex- 
claimed that  the  very  extent  of  the  country  ‘ ‘ exposes  us  to 
the  greatest  of  all  calamities, — next  to  the  loss  of  liberty, — 
and  even  to  that  in  its  consequences — disunion.  We  are 
great,  and  rapidly — I was  about  to  say  fearfully  growing. 
This  is  our  pride  and  our  danger;  our  weakness  and  our 
strength.  We  are  under  the  most  imperious  obligation  to 
counteract  every  tendency  to  disunion.  . . . Whatever  im- 
pedes the  intercourse  of  the  extremes  with  this,  the  center 
of  the  Republic,  weakens  the  Union.”33 

Monroe’s  first  message  indicated  that  he  followed 
Madison  in  the  belief  that  Congress  was  not  empowered  by 
the  constitution  to  establish  internal  improvements ; and 
later  he  vetoed  a measure  to  authorize  the  president  to  erect 
toll  houses  along  the  Cumberland  Road,  appoint  toll 
gatherers  and  otherwise  regulate  its  use,  on  the  ground  that 
it  exceeded  the  power  of  congress.  He  favored  internal 

year.  In  1798  Fitch’s  grant  in  New  York,  which  was  to  have  run 
fourteen  years,  was  canceled  and  Livingston  given  a monopoly  for 
twenty  years  providing  within  a year  he  run  a steamboat  at  four 
miles  an  hour.  This  he  failed  to  do,  but  got  his  grant  renewed  in 
1803,  and  again  extended  until  the  successful  operation  of  the 
Clermont  in  1807. 

“"Messages  and  Papers,”  Richardson,  I,  584. 

"Calhoun:  "Works  II,”  190.  "American  Nation”  XIII,  253. 


96  Water  Ways  and  Canals 

improvements  but  thought  a constitutional  amendment 
necessary  .a4 

The  next  year,  however,  some  bills  for  internal  improve- 
ments got  through  among  them  the  first  act  for  the  im- 
provement of  harbors.  In  1802,  under  the  influence  of 
Gallatin,  Randolph  and  Jefferson,  5 per  cent  of  the  Ohio 
lands  sold  were  appropriated  for  the  building  of  roads.35 
In  1809  was  passed  the  first  act  for  river  improvement.36 

These  were  the  beginnings  of  National  aid  for  internal 
improvements  in  the  United  States.  The  “implied  powers” 
adherents  seem  to  have  been  in  the  ascendency  for  a report 
of  the  treasurer  shows  that  up  to  1830  the  United  States 
had  appropriated  for  internal  improvements — Cumberland 
Road,  $2,443,420.20;  subscriptions  to  canal  stock  and  im- 
provements of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers,  $1,263,- 
315.65 ; for  other  items  such  as  building  of  piers,  preserva- 
tion of  ports  and  piers,  making  roads  and  removing  river 
obstructions,  $1,603,694.31.  It  was  pointed  out  that  only 
$234, 955. 9237  had  been  expended  in  the  territories  where 
the  question  of  constitutionality  did  not  arise.  Presidents 
had  nearly  always  declared  in  favor  of  internal  improve- 
ments but  desired  that  constitutional  provision  be  made  for 
the  same.  Jackson,  a strong  state  sovereignty  man,  sug- 
gested that  the  surplus  funds  of  the  Government  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  several  states  in  proportion  to  their 
representation  in  Congress;  and  in  1830  vetoed  a bill  for 
subscription  to  the  stock  of  one  canal  and  pocketed  others, 
and  closed  his  administration  by  pocketing  a bill  for  the 
improvement  of  the  Wabash  River.  While  Jackson’s 
attitude  cheeked  federal  appropriations,  especially  for 
roads  and  canals,  those  for  rivers  and  harbors  became  al- 
most a national  scandal,  and  were  with  other  public  ap- 
propriation bills  frequently  referred  to  as  “pork  bills.” 
A congressional  appropriation,  whether  for  rivers  and  har- 

34 “American  Nation,”  XIV,  231. 

” ‘ ‘ Laws  of  the  United  States,  ’ ’ VI.,  120. 

83  MacDonald,  “American  Nation”  Vol.  XV,  134. 

"“American  Nation,”  Vol.  XV,  pp.  136-137. 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


97 


bors,  a federal  building,  or  an  irrigation  project,  brought 
considerable  money  into  a state ; it  was  considered  a feather 
in  the  cap  of  a congressman  and  enchanced  his  chances  for 
reelection.  Consequently  nearly  every  congressman  intro- 
duced such  an  act  for  his  district  and  “log-rolling” 
schemes  were  entered  into  by  many  to  procure  their 
passage.  River  and  harbor  appropriations  continued  to  in- 
crease until  1882,  when  they  amounted  to  the  vast  sum  of 
$18,743,875  to  be  applied  to  some  500  different  localities. 
President  Arthur38  vetoed  the  bill,  but  Congress  passed  it 
over  the  veto  and  the  “barrel  of  pork”  was  divided  up  as 
usual.  The  publicity  given  the  matter  checked  appropria- 
tions for  a while  but  they  soon  climbed  higher  than  ever. 
The  appropriation  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1920  was  $33,378,- 
364.39 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Arthur,  President  Chester  A.,  Veto  of  river  and  harbor  bill, 
Richardson’s  “Messages  and  Papers,”  VIII,  pp.  120-122. 

Barnard,  Charles,  “Inland  Navigation  of  the  United  States,” 
The  Century  Magazine,  Vol.  XXXVIII,  pp.  353-372. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  “Works  of.”  Edited  by  Richard  K.  Cralle, 
6 volumes,  1853-1855.  Vol.  II,  p.  190.  D.  Appleton  & 
Company,  New  York. 

Canals. — “Report  of  the  Committee  on  Roads  and  Canals  (of 
the  House  of  Representatives)  in  reply  to  memorials 
of  Chesapeake  & Ohio  Canal,  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad, 
and  inhabitants  of  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania, 
asking  additional  subscriptions  by  the  United  States  to  the 
capital  stock  of  the  Canal.”  Report  No.  414,  H.  of  R.  23d 
Cong.  1st  Sess.,  pp.  378  et  seq. 

Dunbar,  Seymour,  “History  of  Travel  in  America,”  4 volumes, 
Bobbs-Merrill  Company,  Indianapolis. 

Greeley,  Horace,  “Recollections  of  a Busy  Life.”  J.  B.  Ford 
& Co.,  New  York,  1869. 

Hazard,  George  S.,  “The  Erie  Canal.  Its  National  Character.” 
Published  by  order  of  Board  of  Trade,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1873. 

Howe,  Henry,  “Historical  Sketch  of  the  West.” 

88 Richardson,  “Messages  and  Papers,”  VIII,  120-122. 

*9“The  American  Year  Book,”  208. 


98 


Water  Ways  and  Canals 


“Isthmian  Canal  Commission  Report,”  Sen.  Doc.,  57th  Congress, 
1st  session,  No.  54. 

Johnson’s  Cyclopaedia.  Article  on  Canals. 

MacDonald,  William,  “Jacksonian  Democracy,”  Vol.  XV  of 
the  American  Nation  Series,  Chapter  VIII,  “Internal  Im- 
provements.” Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

McMaster,  John  Bach,  “History  of  the  United  States,”  Vol. 
V,  Chap.  XLIV.  D.  Appleton  & Company,  New  York,  1911. 

O’Hanlon,  Rev.  J.,  “Irish  Emigrant’s  Guide  of  the  United 
States,”  Boston,  1851. 

Panama  Canal. — Financial  Statement  to  June  30,  1919,  The 
American  Year  Book  for  the  year  1919,  p.  364,  D.  Appleton 
& Co.,  New  York. 

Richardson,  James  D.,  “Messages  and  Papers,”  Vol.  I,  584, 
President  Madison’s  Veto  of  Calhoun’s  Bonus  Bill.  Pub- 
lished by  order  of  Congress,  8 Vols.,  Washington,  1896-1899. 

Roosevelt,  President  Theodore,  “Messages  to  Congress,”  Janu- 
ary 4,  1904,  Sen.  Doc.  58th  Sess.,  No.  53,  pp.  5-26. 

Smith,  Theodore  C.,  “Parties  and  Slavery,”  Vol.  XVIII,  of  the 
American  Nation  Series,  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

Sparks,  Edwin  E.,  “National  Development,”  Vol.  XXIII  of  the 
American  Nation  Series,  Chapters  IV  and  XIII,  Harper  & 
Brothers,  New  York. 

Thayer,  Wm.  R.,  “Theodore  Roosevelt,”  p.  178  et  seq.  Grosset 
& Dunlap,  New  York. 

Thayer,  Wm.  R.,  “John  Hay,”  Vol.  II,  pp.  339-41.  Houghton 
Mifflin  Company,  Boston,  1915. 

Turner,  Frederick  J.,  “Rise  of  the  New  West,”  Vol.  XIV  of 
the  American  Nation  Series,  Chapter  VIII,  “Western  Trade 
and  Ideals,”  Harper  & Brothers,  New  York 

Twain,  Mark  (Clemens,  S.  L.),  “Life  on  the  Mississippi,” 
Harper  & Brothers,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Census  review  of  “Agencies  of  Transportation,”  1880. 

Warner,  I.  W.,  “Immigrant’s  Guide  and  Citizen’s  Manual.” 
New  York,  1848. 


CHAPTER  IV 


RAILROADS 

During  the  period  of  the  development  of  the  canals  there 
was  growing  up  along  side  of  them  an  agency  for  transpor- 
tation that  was  destined  practically  to  put  them  out  of 
business.  Engineers  in  both  Europe  and  America  were 
straining  every  energy  to  apply  the  steam  engine  to  the 
propulsion  of  wagons  along  a highway.  No  one  at  first 
looked  upon  the  railroad  as  a separate  and  distinct  in- 
dustry. For  years  upon  roads  over  which  there  was  much 
hauling  of  heavy  loads  planks  had  been  placed  in  the  tracks 
to  prevent  rutting.  These  planks  had  developed  into 
rigidly  set  timbers  or  rails  either  attached  to  cross  timbers 
or  to  stones  set  in  the  roadway.  A little  later  iron  straps 
were  fastened  to  the  tops  of  the  rails  to  lessen  wear  and 
friction.  It  was  found  that  a horse  could  haul  on  these 
tramways  several  times  as  much  as  he  could  on  the  dirt 
roadway.  The  steam  engine  had  revolutionized  industry 
and  was  turning  all  sorts  of  machinery  with  an  efficiency 
unknown  before,  why  then  could  it  not  be  applied  to  propel 
vehicles?  In  England  George  Stephenson  and  associates 
were  proving  that  it  could.  But  prior  to  their  time  many 
thinkers  of  America  believed  in  it.  John  Fitch,  the  half 
crazy  inventor  of  an  early  steamboat,  had  built  a model 
locomotive.  Oliver  Evans,  who  had  placed  wheels  under  a 
steamboat  of  his  invention  (1804)  and  run  it  over  the 
streets  of  Philadelphia,  predicted  “The  time  will  come 
when  people  will  travel  in  stages  moved  by  steam  engines, 
from  one  city  to  another,  almost  as  fast  as  birds  fly,  fifteen 
to  twenty  miles  an  hour.”  His  vision  went  still  further; 
he  saw  what  most  people  think  to  be  absolutely  modern 

99 


100 


Railroads 


innovations:  “A  carriage  will  set  out  from  Washington 
in  the  morning,  the  passengers  will  breakfast  at  Balti- 
more, dine  at  Philadelphia,  and  sup  at  New  York,  the 
same  day  . . . and  travel  by  night  as  well  as  by  day;  and 
the  passengers  will  sleep  in  these  stages  as  comfortably  as 
they  do  now  in  steamboats.”1  Evans  antedated  Stephen- 
son’s thought  that  speed  with  a locomotive  could  only  be 
made  on  nearly  level  rails.  John  Stevens,  who  is  often 
spoken  of  as  the  father  of  American  railroads,  of  course, 
had  similar  beliefs,  and  wrote  a pamphlet  to  impress  his 
ideas  of  the  importance  of  railways  upon  Congress.  He 
said:  “I  am  anxious  and  ambitious  that  my  native 

country  should  have  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  intro- 
duce an  improvement  of  such  immense  importance  to 
society  at  large,  and  should  feel  the  utmost  reluctance  at 
being  compelled  to  resort  to  foreigners  in  the  first  in- 
stance.”2 Had  Congress  not  turned  a deaf  ear  to  him  it  is 
quite  possible  that  he  might  have  been  before  Stephenson 
in  demonstrating  the  practicability  of  the  locomotive.3 
Stevens  built  a small  locomotive  and  demonstrated  it  on 
a piece  of  track  on  his  grounds  with  himself  as  passenger 
in  1820.  Several  tramways  or  railroads  operated  by  horse 
were  established  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  One  of 
them — sponsored  by  the  people  of  Baltimore,  anxious  to 
retain  their  trade — was  the  Baltimore  & Ohio  Railroad, 
which  had  secured  from  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Pennsyl- 
vania charters  for  its  construction  in  1827  and  1828.  It 
was  being  built  with  many  curves,  as  it,  too,  was  expected 
to  have  horse  propulsion.  Many  persons  thought  it  should 
be  made  straighter  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  steam 
locomotive  when  the  inventors  had  perfected  it  sufficiently 
to  be  usable.  It  was  not  considered  feasible  to  operate 
locomotives  on  crooked  roads.  Peter  Cooper,  justly  praised 
for  many  benefits  to  his  country,  decided  to  build  a loco- 

1 Quoted  from  “Niles’  Register”  of  1812  by  Dunbar. 

2 Stevens  ’ pamphlet  published  in  1812. 

2 Stephenson ’s  first  locomotive  was  put  out  in  1814.  His  Socket 
and  Ericsson’s  Novelty  had  their  famous  contest  resulting  in  favor 
of  the  Socket  in  1829- 


Railroads 


101 


motive  to  prove  it  could  run  on  a crooked  track.  In  his  own 
words : ‘ ‘ Under  these  discouraging  circumstances  many  of 
the  principal  stockholders  were  about  to  abandon  the  work, 
and  were  only  prevented  from  forfeiting  their  stock  by  my 
persuading  them  that  a locomotive  could  be  so  made  as  to 
pass  successfully  around  the  short  curves  then  found  in  the 
road.  ’ ’4 

Accordingly  in  1829  Cooper  fitted  up  a small  engine 
and  boiler  on  a flat  car  and  with  that  crude  locomotive,  the 
Tom  Thumb,  was  able  to  demonstrate  that  curves  could  be 
“navigated.”  Having  made  some  changes  in  the  Tom 
Thumb,  Cooper,  the  next  year,  ran  it  over  the  13  miles  from 
Baltimore  to  Ellicott’s  Mills  in  an  hour  and  a quarter,  an 
average  of  6 miles  per  hour,  returning  in  sixty-one  minutes, 
including  a stop  of  four  minutes.  The  engine  pushed  ahead 
of  it  a flat  car  carrying  twenty-four  passengers.  The 
wheels  of  the  engine  had  been  constructed  on  the  “cone 
principle  ’ ’ which  allowed  it  to  round  the  curves  of  400  feet 
radius  without  trouble.5 6  This  was  the  first  time  a car  filled 
with  passengers  had  been  hauled  over  a railroad  in  the 
United  States  by  means  of  steam  power. 

In  England  steam  engines  had  been  tried  out  but  not 
until  1820  was  the  first  commercial  road,  the  Stockton  & 
Darlington  Railroad,  37  miles  in  length,  completed.  Prior 
to  this  time  the  tram  roads  had  been  erected  for  special- 
ized private  transportation  (from  colliery  to  canal,  for  in- 
stance) or  as  improvements  to  the  public  highways.  The 
Stockton  & Darlington  was  intended  to  be  operated  with 
horses.  And  even  as  late  as  1828  the  Liverpool  & Man- 
chester Railroad,  intended  primarily  to  haul  freight  and 
relieve  the  congested  condition  of  the  canals,  was  chartered 
with  a provision  that  the  owners  could  exact  toll  of  all  who 
might  put  vehicles  on  the  road  for  the  transport  of  goods. 
The  engineer,  George  Stephenson,  however,  was  a strong 

4 Brown ’s  ‘ ‘ History  of  the  First  Locomotive,  ’ ’ letter  from  Cooper, 

1869. 

6 The  coning  of  wheels  is  an  invention  of  Jonathan  Knight, 
Engineer  of  the  Baltimore  & Ohio  Railroad  Company. 


102 


Railroads 


advocate  of  steam  power  and  the  success  of  the  Rocket, 
built  by  his  son  Robert,  in  1829,  as  this  road  was  nearing 
completion,  definitely  determined  the  power  to  be  used. 
Roads  in  America  followed  the  same  idea  that  they  were 
public  highways.  7n  Pennsylvania  the  state  built  a rail- 
road from  Philadelphia  to  Columbia  and  licensed  over 
twenty  different  companies  to  run  their  horse-drawn  cars 
over  it.6  In  other  states  the  same  idea  prevailed  and  the 
right  to  charge  tolls  “upon  all  passengers  and  property” 
transported  upon  the  road  was  legalized  by  the  charter. 

The  utility  and  economy  of  the  railways  were  so  manifest 
that  organizations  were  formed  rapidly  over  the  whole  well 
settled  portions  of  the  country.  Several  locomotives  were 
imported  from  England.  One  of  these,  the  John  Bull 
(locomotives  were  for  a number  of  years  all  named  like 
sleeping  cars  are  now),  brought  over  by  Stevens  & Son,  is 
said  to  have  given  Baldwin  information  which  enabled  him 
to  build  Old  Ironsides,  the  first  locomotive  to  run  on 
Pennsylvania  tracks,  and  establish  a business  which  after- 
wards became  one  of  the  largest  locomotive  works  in  the 
world.  Old  Ironsides  was  built  by  Matthias  Baldwin  and 
his  brother-in-law  Rufus  Tyler  for  the  Philadelphia, 
Germantown  & Norristown  Road.  Tyler  seems  to  have 
made  the  drawings.  Baldwin  was  by  trade  a jeweler  but  his 
mechanical  ingenuity  had  carried  him  further.  He  had 
added  to  his  business  that  of  constructing  tools  and  calico 
printing  apparatus  and  machinery.  He  had  built  a steam 
engine  for  his  own  shop.  A museum  operator  in  Phila- 
delphia desiring  to  add  to  the  attractions  of  his  place  of 
amusement  wished  to  put  in  a miniature  locomotive  and 
railway.  He  applied  to  Baldwin,  who  built  the  road  with 
its  small  locomotive  and  cars.  On  April  25,  1831,  its  in- 
stallation was  completed  and  it  hauled  two  four-seated 
■passenger  cars  about  a circular  track,  to  the  great  delight 
of  the  patrons,  who  were  anxious  for  the  experience  of 
riding  on  the  railroad. 

One  of  the  roads  that  seems  to  have  been  prolific  in 

0 Dunbar,  ‘ ‘ A History  of  Travel  in  America,  ’ ’ 932. 


Railroads 


103 


“first  things”  was  between  Charleston  and  Hamburg, 
South  Carolina.  Chartered  in  1827,  again  in  1828.  In 
1829-30  it  experimented  with  sailing  cars,  as  did  also  the 
Baltimore  & Ohio  and  with  treadmill  horse  powers.  But 
the  company  fortunately  employed  Horatio  Allen,  who  had 
studied  the  English  roads  and  was  strongly  inclined  to 
steam  power.  He  so  convincingly  presented  his  ideas  that 
it  was  decided  to  strengthen  construction  and  use  such 
locomotives.  This  then,  very  likely,  was  the  first  railroad 
in  the  world  to  adopt  formally  the  steam  locomotive  as  its 
means  of  propulsion  (January  14,  1830).  The  company 
accordingly  built  its  lines  substantially  and  placed  upon 
them  the  “first  locomotive  made  in  America  for  regular 
and  practical  use  on  a railway.”7  This  locomotive  known 
as  the  Best  Friend  of  Charleston  was  built  in  New  York 
and  shipped  to  Charleston  by  sea.  After  some  adjustments 
it  satisfied  the  demands  of  the  contract,  but  distinguished 
itself  by  being  the  first  locomotive  to  explode.  It  is  said 
a negro  fireman  sat  upon  or  held  down  the  safety  valve  to 
prevent  escaping  steam  from  annoying  him.  The  Charles- 
ton Courier's  account  closes  with  the  gratifying  informa- 
tion that  “none  of  the  persons  are  dangerously  injured  ex- 
cept the  negro,  who  had  his  thigh  broken.”  A new  loco- 
motive, the  West  Point,  was  secured,  upon  which  several 
improvements  suggested  by  experience  had  been  made; 
among  them  the  safety  valve  was  placed  out  of  reach  of  the 
fireman,  making  it  fool-proof. 

The  beginning  of  the  New  York  Central  may  be  traced 
to  a charter  granted  in  1826  to  the  Mohawk  & Hudson 
Company,  which  with  five  or  six  other  small  lines  was 
joined  together  into  that  company.  Its  first  locomotive, 
the  De  Witt  Clinton,  had  a rather  interesting  initiation. 
The  engine  was  constructed  by  the  West  Point  foundry,  the 
same  concern  that  had  built  the  Best  Friend  and  the  West 
Point.  A demonstration  was  announced  for  August  9, 
1831,  the  road  having  17  miles  of  rails  at  that  time.  The 
locomotive,  a small  affair  compared  with  the  modern 

7 Dunbar,  ‘ ‘ A History  of  Travel  in  America,  ’ ’ 960. 


104 


Railroads 


engines,  is  still  in  existence  and  with  its  train  of  that  day 
was  exhibited  at  the  Pageant  of  Progress,  Chicago,  July 
30,  1921,  as  the  “pioneer  American  steam  passenger  train.” 
The  whole  engine  was  only  about  12  feet  long  with  large 
wheels,  tall  smoke  stack  and  a central  steam  dome.  Back 
of  it  were  the  tender  and  wood  for  fuel  and  two  barrels  of 
water,  two  passenger  coaches  modeled  after  stage  coaches, 
and  following  these  several  small  flat  cars  to  which  had 
been  attached  temporary  benches  for  seats.  The  locomotive 
and  cars  were  joined  together  with  short  sections  of  strong 
chain.  When  the  engine  started  these  jerked  so  badly  the 
passengers  could  not  retain  their  seats;  stopping  had  a 
similar  effect.  On  the  trip  it  is  said  the  passengers  appro- 
priated rails  from  a near  fence  and  made  braces  to  keep 
the  cars  the  full  length  of  the  chains  apart.  The  wood  fuel 
produced  many  sparks  which  flying  backward  set  fire  to 
and  ruined  much  of  the  passengers’  clothing.  But  accord- 
ing to  a newspaper  report 8 the  train  “passed  over  the 
road  from  plane  to  plane,  to  the  delight  of  a large  crowd 
assembled  to  witness  the  performance.  The  engine  per- 
formed the  entire  route  in  less  than  one  hour,  including 
stoppages,  and  on  a part  of  the  road  its  speed  was  at  the 
rate  of  30  miles  an  hour.  ’ ’ 

On  May  10,  1893,  Engine  No.  999,  of  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad,  made,  traveling  alone,  a record  of  112.5 
miles  an  hour. 

The  Camden  & Amboy  road  was  chartered  in  1830  and 
was  somewhat  unique  in  that  New  Jersey  in  return  for 
$200,000  worth  of  stock  had  granted  a monopoly  of  the 
right  of  way  between  Philadelphia  and  Newark.  Poore 
says : 9 “ The  state  became  a willing  party  to  the  scheme, 
under  the  idea  that  it  could  thereby  draw  the  means  for 
supporting  its  government  from  citizens  of  other  States, 
thus  relieving  its  own  from  the  burdens  of  taxation.”  He 
says,  “the  state  now  (1860)  derives  a revenue  of  over 

8 The  Albany  Argus,  August  11,  1831. 

9 ‘ ‘ History  of  the  Railroads  and  Canals  of  the  United  States,  ’ ’ 
1860,  Vol.  I,  p.  377. 


Railroads 


105 


$200,000  annually  from  transit  duties  and  dividends  on  the 
stock  presented  to  it.  ’ ’ 

New  England  started  three  railway  projects  about  the 
same  time:  Boston  & Lowell,  chartered  in  1830  first  used 
in  1834,  26.7  miles  long;  Boston  & Providence,  chartered 
in  1831,  first  used  in  1834,  43.5  miles  long;  and  the  Boston 
& Worcester,  chartered  in  1831,  first  used  in  1834,  44.6 
miles  long.10  These  roads  were  chartered  with  the  idea  of 
using  horse-drawn  vehicles,  except  the  Boston  & Worcester, 
where  steam  locomotives  were  authorized,  but  it  was  not 
until  about  1834  that  they  were  used.  Some  of  these  roads, 
as  did  most  of  those  built  farther  west,  followed  the 
English  practice  of  laying  track.  One  of  them,  at  least, 
laid  its  track  upon  wooden  cross-ties,  thus  securing  the 
necessary  resiliency  for  service.  It  was  not  many  years, 
however,  before  several  other  roads  were  established  with 
regular  trips  of  locomotive  drawn  cars  arranged  both  for 
passenger  and  freight  traffic.  The  time  of  passenger 
service  from  Boston  to  New  York  had  been  materially 
shortened  by  connecting  the  schedules  of  stage  coaches  to 
Providence  with  those  of  steamboats  down  the  Sound. 
When  the  steam  railway  came  into  existence  the  time  of  the 
trip  was  again  shortened,  and  still  again  when  an  all  rail 
route  was  opened  in  1848,  as  shown  by  the  following  table : 

1775  General  Washington  was  12  days  en  route. 

Early  coaches  required  a week. 

1800  Stage  coaches  required  4 days. 

1832  Stage  coaches  required  41  hours. 

1822  Coach  to  Providence,  steamboat  to  New  York,  28  hours. 

1835  Coach  to  Providence,  steamboat  to  New  York,  16  hours. 

1835  Railway  to  Providence,  steamboat  to  New  York,  15  hours. 

1848  All  railway,  10  hours. 

1922  All  railway,  5 hours,  10  minutes. 

1922  Air  plane,  3 hours. 

While  the  railroads  of  the  East  were  gradually  working 
west,  the  trans-Alleghany  states  were  themselves  looking 
toward  railroad  transportation.  The  first  railway  in  Ohio 
was  begun  in  1835  and  had  completed  30  miles  by  1840.  It 

“Dunbar,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America,”  998,  1383. 


106 


Railroads 


extended  from  Sandusky  to  Springfield.  When  it  was 
chartered,  1832,  under  the  name  of  the  Mad  River  & Lake 
Erie  Railway,  the  intention  was  to  connect  Lake  Erie 
with  the  Ohio  River.  A locomotive  was  purchased  and 
shipped  to  Sandusky  by  canal  and  lake.  It  arrived  be- 
fore any  track  was  laid  hence  the  gauge  of  the  track  was 
made  to  fit  the  locomotive,  4 feet  10  inches.  Other  roads 
in  Ohio  were  laid  at  that  gauge  and  in  time  the  state 
adopted  that  as  a standard. 

Michigan  in  1832,  then  a territory,  incorporated  the 
Detroit  & St.  Joseph  Railroad  Company.  After  several 
years  without  doing  anything  the  road  was  completed  to 
Ann  Arbor  in  1840.  Later  its  western  terminal  became 
New  Buffalo,  from  which  point  there  was  steamboat  com- 
munication with  Chicago.  This  was  the  germ  which  has 
grown  into  the  Michigan  Central. 

A railroad  was  begun  from  Frankfort,  Kentucky,  to 
Lexington,  a few  miles  from  the  pioneer  settlement  at 
Boonesborough.  By  1840  this  road  had  extended  to  the 
Ohio  River  near  Louisville  and  was  92  miles  in  length. 
Indiana  chartered  not  less  than  a half-dozen  railways  in 
1832  and  continued  with  a score  or  more  in  the  next  few 
years.  The  Lawreneeburg  & Indianapolis  line,  chartered 
1832,  was  opened  with  a Fourth  of  July  celebration,  1834, 
and  had  laid  less  than  2 miles  of  track  by  1836. 11  The  Madi- 
son & Indianapolis  road  was  opened  in  1838.  The  report  of 
the  principal  engineer,  1837,  states  that  “the  exclusive  use 
of  steam  as  a motive  power”  had  been  adopted,  thus  saving 
“the  cost  of  a horse  path”  and  avoiding  “the  delay  and 
confusion  arising  from  the  simultaneous  use  of  both  steam 
and  horse  power,”  as  well  as  elevating  the  “character  of 
the  road  by  greater  dispatch  in  the  conveyance  of 
passengers.”  He  thinks  “in  the  use  of  the  railroads  con- 
structed by  the  state  it  will  probably  be  best  for  the  state 
to  furnish  the  motive  power,  leaving  the  cars  for 
the  conveyance  of  freight  and  passengers  to  be  fur- 
nished by  individuals  or  companies,  from  whom  the 

“Dunbar,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America,”  1071. 


Railroads 


107 


state  will  exact  the  proper  toll  for  the  use  of  the  road,  and 
for  the  motive  power.”  The  idea  seems  everywhere  to 
have  prevailed  that  a railway  was  a public  highway  to  be 
used  by  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  Only  for  a very 
short  time  in  the  history  of  the  country  did  the  theory  have 
prominence  that  a railway  is  private  property  to  the  extent 
that  its  owners  could  do  as  they  pleased  with  it  and  the 
‘ ‘ public  be  damned.  ’ ’ 

At  various  points  in  the  South  were  railways  projected 
and  built.  Besides  the  Charleston  & Hamburg,  which  has 
already  been  mentioned,  and  which  by  1850  had  extended 
across  the  state  to  Hamburg  directly  across  the  Savannah 
River  from  Augusta,  Georgia,  and  northward  to  Columbia 
with  some  branches,  should  be  noted  a few  others.  From 
Richmond  there  was  a line  westward  to  the  coal  fields 
(1830-31)  and  a line  which  by  1840  connected  the  Potomac 
with  Fredericksburg,  a distance  of  75  miles.  It  was  con- 
structed in  the  ordinary  manner  of  wooden  rails  with  strap- 
iron  plates.  In  Virginia  there  were  the  Petersburg  & 
Roanoke,  about  60  miles  long  and  other  lines  sufficient  to 
total  in  1840  more  than  300  miles.  North  Carolina  also 
took  up  the  rail  question  rather  early.  The  Wilmington  & 
Raleigh,  chartered  in  1833,  had  laid  upwards  of  160  miles 
in  1840.  Georgia  was  building  lines  in  the  ’thirties  and 
’forties  from  Augusta  across  the  state  to  link  with  lines  in 
Tennessee.  The  lines  of  these  several  Southeastern  states 
were  joined  together  later  and  became  parts  of  large 
systems.  Of  the  several  projects  authorized  amounting  to 
more  than  1000  miles  (1837)  only  one  materialized,  namely, 
the  road  from  Springfield  to  Meredosia,  and  58  miles  had 
been  completed  by  1842.  A locomotive  was  purchased  and 
according  to  the  Springfield  Journal,  March  18,  “the  cars 
ran  from  Jacksonville,  33^  miles,  in  two  hours  and  eight 
minutes  including  stoppages.  ’ ’ On  account  of  the  unsettled 
condition  of  the  country  and  the  accidents  along  the  way, — 
no  doubt  the  track  was  poorly  constructed,— it  did  not  pay. 
The  locomotive  for  a considerable  time  lay  out  in  the  open 
where  it  had  jumped  the  track.  A man  bought  it, 


108 


Railroads 


equipped  it  with  wide  tired  wheels  and  attempted  to 
operate  it  on  the  wagon  roads.  This  proved  unsuccessful 
and  it  was  finally  abandoned  on  the  prairie.12  The  road 
was  sold  in  1847.  Several  roads  were  reaching  out  for  the 
Mississippi  River  and  the  fertile  prairies  beyond.  The 
bustling  young  city  of  Chicago  began  its  first  railway  to- 
ward the  west  in  1848.  The  other  extremity  was  set  for 
Galena  on  the  Mississippi  River.  Not  being  financially  able 
to  buy  T-rails  they  purchased  some  second-hand  strap- 
irons.  Likewise  a second-hand  locomotive  was  obtained, 
but  when  it  arrived  at  the  water  front  in  Chicago  the  city 
authorities  having  refused  the  privilege  of  laying  tracks  on 
the  street  the  company  was  at  a loss  to  know  how  to  get  it  to 
the  end  of  their  rails.  After  much  discussion  permission 
to  lay  a temporary  track  was  given,  and  the  Pioneer  finally 
reached  her  destination.  The  railway  proved  successful 
from  the  first;  later  it  became  part  of  the  Illinois  Central 
System.  The  locomotive  Pioneer  is  still  retained  in  the 
Field  Museum  of  Chicago. 

There  is  not  space  to  trace  the  development  of  the  rail- 
ways in  all  the  individual  states.  In  all  natural  growths, 
increases  at  first  are  slow,  then  accelerated  until  a 
maximum  is  reached,  followed  by  a gradual  retardation. 
So  with  the  railway  growth.  The  number  of  miles  of  rail- 
road constructed  up  to  1830  was  41 ; 1835,  918 ; to  1840, 
2797 ; in  small  widely  scattered  locations,  but  from  that 
time  on  to  the  Civil  "War  the  work  went  on  rapidly.  By 
1860  about  31,000  miles  had  been  constructed  and  was 
going  on  at  the  rate  of  5000  miles  per  year.  Seven  trunk 
line  roads  had  passed  through  the  Appalachian  Mountain 
system ; at  eight  places  they  and  their  connections  touched 
the  Ohio  River,  and  the  Mississippi  at  ten.*  By  1850  there 
was  railway  connection  between  Boston  and  the  east  end  of 
Lake  Erie,  and  from  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  to  Lake 
Michigan  with  steamboat  connection  across  the  two  lakes; 
before  1860  there  was  a network  of  rails  between  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  Mississippi  River.  Construction 

**  Potter’s  American  Monthly,  July,  1879. 

* T.  C.  Smith,  American  Nation,  Tol.  XVIII,  p.  60. 


Railroads 


109 


lagged  behind  in  the  South.  Up  to  1856  the  building  was 
approximately  as  follows : 


Northeastern  States  4000  miles 

Northern  Central  States 7500  “ 

South  Atlantic  States  2750  “ 

Southern  Interior  2150  “ 


And  the  very  fact  that  few  of  these  were  north  and 
south  roads,  that  travel  and  intercourse  were  east  and  west, 
that  the  people  of  the  North  did  not  fraternize  with  the 
people  of  the  South,  that  they  grew  apart  and  worshiped 
at  the  shrine  of  different  ideals,  furnished  at  least  one 
cause  for  the  cruel  Civil  War.  There  are  still  too  few  north 
and  south  trunk  lines  of  travel  and  commerce,  too  little 
trade  and  friendly  intercourse  to  heal  the  differences  en- 
gendered by  a century  of  separation.  There  lies  one  of  the 
hopes  of  the  interchange  of  summer  and  winter  automobile 
visitors. 

The  building  of  railroads  offered  an  opening  for  surplus 
capital;  the  opportunity  for  fortune  and  fame  was  attrac- 
tive ; but  above  all  the  people  were  crazed  with  the  idea  of 
improvement;  every  town  wanted  to  grow  bigger  and  a 
railroad  was  an  absolute  necessity;  scores  of  companies 
were  formed  with  the  intention  of  beginning  construction, 
then  deeding  the  improvement  to  some  established  line  to 
operate.  Many  communities  subscribed  stock,  others  voted 
bonds,  others  paid  for  right  of  way  by  private  subscrip- 
tion in  order  to  secure  a railroad.  Mob  psychology  had 
got  in  its  work;  the  people  were  frenzied.  The  result  was 
often  overbuilding,  parallel  lines,  too  many  roads  attempt- 
ing to  occupy  the  same  territory,  with  the  result  that 
branch  lines  often  never  paid  interest  on  the  cost  of  con- 
struction. On  the  other  hand  the  gambling  instinct  was 
rampant,  many  roads  were  overcapitalized,  stock  was 
voted  influential  persons  without  money  consideration,  and 
stock  sold  to  others  for  more  than  it  was  worth. 

As  there  had  been  for  turnpikes,  as  there  had  been  for 
canals,  once  again  there  came  a popular  call  for  govern- 


110 


Railroads 


mental  aid.  Land  was  then  plenty  and  the  general  belief 
was  that  the  prosperity  of  the  country  demanded  its  settle- 
ment. If  railways  could  be  induced  to  go  out  into  the  open 
prairies  and  by  their  selling  agencies  bring  about  the  occupa- 
tion and  tillage  of  these  lands,  other  lands  owned  by  the  Gov- 
ernment would  soon  be  in  demand.  There  would  be  no  par- 
ticular hardship  on  anyone,  since  Government  land  was 
sold  to  actual  settlers  for  such  a small  sum,  the  railroads 
would  be  unable  to  dispose  of  their  land  at  a much  larger 
price.  As  a matter  of  fact  the  land  was  sold  by  the  rail- 
roads for  whatever  it  would  bring;  the  prices  increased  as 
settlement  became  more  dense.  In  Iowa  railroad  land  sold 
from  $5  to  $50  per  acre  during  the  ’sixties  and  ’seventies. 
The  remaining  land  held  by  the  government  was  ordinarily 
increased  in  price  from  $1.25  to  $2.50  per  acre. 

Congress,  evidently  influenced  by  the  demand  for  rail- 
roads, and  falling  back  upon  the  precedent  of  the  National 
Highway,  heretofore  mentioned,  granted  in  1850  to  the 
State  of  Illinois  a strip  of  land  about  12  miles  wide  length- 
wise through  the  state  to  be  transferred  by  it  to  the  Illinois 
Central  Railroad.  The  act  gave  six  sections  per  mile  on 
each  side  of  the  track,  amounting,  as  certified  to  later, 
2,595,053  acres.  In  consideration  of  this  and  in  lieu  of  all 
other  taxes,  the  company  agreed  to  pay  the  state  an  amount 
equal  to  7 per  cent  of  the  gross  earnings  from  freight 
and  passenger  traffic.  The  company  had  received  from  the 
sale  (principal  and  advanced  interest)  of  2,250,633  acres, 
up  to  January  1,  1873,  $24,296,596  ;13  an  average  of  about 
$11  per  acre. 

Other  companies  were  quick  to  take  advantage  of  tins 
precedent.  Each  had  its  representative  in  Congress. 
For  over  twenty  years  there  was  scarcely  a Congress  that 
did  not  make  one  or  two  such  grants.  More  than  a hun- 
dred such  grants 14  were  made  between  1850  and  1872, 

11  B.  W.  Martin,  “History  of  the  Grange  Movement,”  1874,  p.  35. 

14  Donaldson,  ‘ ‘ History  of  the  Public  Domain.  ’ ’ University  of 
Wisconsin  Bulletin : ‘ ‘ Congressional  Grants  of  Land  in  Aid  of 
Railways,”  by  J.  B.  Sanborn,  Pol.  Sci.  and  History  Series,  Vol.  II, 
No.  3. 


Railroads 


111 


aggregating  155,000,000  acres.15  Several  roads  did  not 
comply  with  the  conditions  of  the  grants  hence  the  donation 
lapsed.  Up  to  June  30,  1880,  grants  amounted  to  155,- 
504,994.59  acres,  according  to  Donaldson,  of  which  there 
had  been  patented  to  the  same  date,  35,214,978.25  acres. 

Pacific  Roads. — The  most  gigantic  land  grants  made  by 
the  Government  were  for  the  benefit  of  the  trans-con- 
tinental or  Pacific  roads.  The  idea  of  a transcontinental 
railroad  has  been  traced  back  practically  to  the  beginning 
of  railroad  building  in  the  United  States.16  During  the 
’fifties  the  debates  in  Congress  waxed  strong.  Should  the 
states’  sovereignty  idea  prevail  and  federal  aid  be  first 
granted  to  the  states  and  dealt  out  by  them  to  the  builders 
as  had  been  done  with  the  Illinois  Central  and  numerous 
other  cases,  or  should  the  National  Government  undertake 
the  work  itself  or  grant  the  aid  to  a company  for  that  pur- 
pose ? Where  would  the  road  be  built : in  the  North,  which 
would  give  an  advantage  to  the  abolitionists,  or  in  the 
South,  with  corresponding  advantage  to  slavery  partisans? 
The  two  classes  were  absolutely  antagonistic  to  each  other ’s 
desires.  Then  there  was  a middle  class,  who  desired  to 
prevent  separation  and  war  who  refused  to  vote  upon 
either  side  for  fear  it  would  create  trouble  with  the  other. 

As  a compromise  a bill  was  passed  in  1853  to  have  the 
country  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  surveyed  to  determine 
the  most  feasible  region  for  building  the  transcontinental 
railroad.  The  report  of  the  survey  is  contained  in  eleven 
volumes,  and  was  made  by  the  War  Department,  of  which 
Jefferson  Davis  was  the  Secretary.  This  cabinet  officer 
reported  in  favor  of  ‘ ‘ the  route  of  the  32d  parallel  ’ ’ as  the 
‘ ‘ most  practical  and  economical  from  the  Mississippi  River 

15  The  ‘ ‘ History  of  the  Grange  Movement,  ’ ’ a subscription  book  by 
Edward  Winslow  Martin,  published  in  1874,  but  which  can  hardly 
be  taken  as  wholly  reliable,  says : ‘ ‘ The  lands  granted  by  the  Gov- 
ernment to  various  railway  corporations  make  up  a total  area  of 
198,165,794  acres,  or  about  300,000  square  miles — an  area  larger  than 
the  State  of  Texas,  which  contains  237,504  square  miles  . . . and 
the  railway  subsidies  comprise  nearly  one-tenth  of  the  entire  Union.  ’ ’ 

18  Dunbar,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America,”  Chap.  LVI,  et  seq. 
Donaldson,  “History  of  the  Public  Domain.” 


112 


Railroads 


to  the  Pacific  Ocean.”17  A line  this  far  south,  of  course, 
was  not  acceptable  to  the  North.  The  election  and  Civil 
War  coming  on  changed  the  status  of  affairs  and  on  July  4, 
1862,  President  Lincoln  signed  the  bill  by  which  the  first 
transcontinental  road  should  be  constructed  by  two  com- 
panies : the  Central  Pacific  working  from  the  west,  and  the 
Union  Pacific  working  from  the  Missouri  River  at  Omaha 
westward.  A grant  of  land  of  approximately  35,000,000 
acres  was  made,  namely,  the  odd  sections  lying  contiguous 
to  the  line  on  either  side.  This  was  not  quite  a return  to  the 
position  of  the  Government  when  it  built  out  of  the  funds 
from  the  sale  of  public  lands  the  National  Road  westward 
from  Maryland,  through  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  into 
Illinois.  Then  the  construction  was  done  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  federal  Government  and  the  road  remained  the 
property  of  the  Government.  Now  federal  aid  was  given 
to  private  companies  to  be  operated  for  their  own  benefit. 
What  might  have  been  the  result  in  this  country  had  the 
Government  taken  a firm  stand  for  national  ownership  is 
problematical,  but  the  fact  that  it  has  made  a success  of  the 
construction  and  operation  of  the  Panama  Canal  leads 
many  to  believe  that  the  railroad  question  would  have  been 
handled  as  easily  if  that  system  had  grown  up  from  the 
beginning.  Opponents  of  government  ownership  point  to 
the  roads  of  continental  Europe  as  being  less  efficient  than 
those  of  England  and  the  United  States  under  private 
ownership.  And  more  recently  the  fiasco  of  Government 
operation  under  war  emergency  is  considered  a strong 
argument  against  public  ownership. 

In  addition  to  the  land  granted  to  the  Union  Pacific  for 
the  ‘ ‘ purpose  of  aiding  in  the  construction  of  said  railroad 
and  telegraph  line,  and  to  secure  the  safe  and  speedy  trans- 
portation of  the  mails,  troops,  munitions  of  war,  and 
public  stores  thereon,  every  alternate  section  of  land, 
designated  by  odd  numbers,  to  the  amount  of  five  alternate 
sections  per  mile  on  each  side  of  said  road,  ’ ’ 18  the  company 

17  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  78,  33d  Congress,  2d  Session. 

ls  U.  S.  Statutes.  Acts  of  1862  and  1864. 


Railroads 


113 


was  given  for  “right  of  way”  200  feet  each  side  of  the 
track,19  “including  all  necessary  grounds”  for  stations, 
side-tracks  and  various  other  purposes  enumerated,  also  to 
take  from  the  public  land  “adjacent  to  the  line  of  said 
road”  (afterwards  limited  to  10  miles  on  each  side) 
“earth,  stone,  timber,  and  other  materials,  for  the  con- 
struction thereof.”  Further  help  was  also  granted  by  the 
provisions  of  the  act  (Section  5)  : “That  . . . the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  shall,  upon  the  certificate  in  writing 
. . . of  the  completion  and  equipment  of  forty  consecutive 
miles  . . . issue  . . . bonds  of  the  United  States  of  one 
thousand  dollars  each,  payable  in  thirty  years  after  date, 
bearing  six  per  centum  per  annum  interest  ...  to  the 
amount  of  sixteen  of  said  bonds  per  mile.”  The  act  pro- 
vides that  this  loan  shall  constitute  a first  mortgage  lien 
on  the  property,  but  the  act  of  1864  allowed  the  company 
to  issue  bonds  to  the  same  amount  and  subrogate  the 
Government  bonds  to  those  issued  by  the  company  making 
the  Government  claim  a second  mortgage  instead  of  a first. 
The  Government  gave  similar  grants  and  privileges  to  the 
Central  Pacific,  although  it  was  a purely  state  corporation 
and,  at  first,  was  only  to  build  to  the  east  line  of  California. 
Apparently  the  last  vestige  of  the  traditions  of  Madison 
and  Monroe,  of  Jackson  and  Buchanan  had  disappeared. 

There  was  danger  that  other  lines  would  be  built.  A line 
was  preparing  to  go  west  from  Leavenworth,  lines  were 
converging  on  St.  Joseph  and  Sioux  City,  any  of  which 
might  become  rivals  of  the  Union  Pacific,  so  the  act  pro- 
vides that  they  shall  unite  with  the  Pacific  not  farther  west 
than  the  one  hundredth  meridian  of  longitude,  and  if  they 
do  so  grants  of  lands  and  subsidy  bonds  will  be  given  to 
them. 

However,  the  demand  for  transcontinental  lines  was  so 
great  that  three  other  lines  were  authorized.  In  1864  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  to  connect  Lake  Superior  with 

19  By  subsequent  provision  the  right  of  way  was  cut  to  two  hundred 
feet,  although  the  company  still  holds  four  hundred  feet  through 
parts  of  Nebraska. 


114 


Railroads 


Puget  Sound,  with  a land  grant  of  58,000,000  acres ; in  the 
Atlantic  & Pacific  to  follow  the  old  32d  parallel  route,  now 
a part  of  the  Southern  Pacific,  with  a grant  of  42,000,000 
acres ; and  last,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & Santa  Fe  received 
also  a large  grant.  The  total  Congressional  grants  certified 
or  patented  to  railroads  and  military  wagon  roads  from 
1850  to  1880  were  as  follows: 

To  States  

To  Corporation  and  Pacific  Roads 
Military  Wagon  Roads  


Deduct  lands  forfeited 

Grand  Total  for  Railroads  and 

Military  Wagon  Roads  

Acres  necessary  to  fill  grants  pro- 
viding all  roads  are  constructed  155,504,994.59  1 

Construction  of  Pacific  Roads. — It  would  be  interesting 
to  take  up  in  detail  the  work  of  constructing  these  roads, 
but  space  will  not  permit.  Nothing  can  be  said  of  the  in- 
tense interest  throughout  the  United  States ; of  the  romance 
and  adventure  of  penetrating  1700  miles  of  wilderness  and 
desert  with  hostile  Indians  ready  at  any  time  to  attack; 
with  worse  than  hostile  Indians  in  the  rough-necks, 
gamblers,  and  prostitutes  who  followed  the  camps;  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  work  employing  2000  graders  to  go  first, 
1500  wood  choppers  and  tie-getters  spreading  their  labors 
over  thousands  of  miles  of  Government  forests ; of  the  engi- 
neers and  their  feats  of  searching  out  easiest  passages ; of  the 
track  layers ; of  the  boarding  houses ; of  general  camp  life ; 
of  t he  exciting  race  with  the  Central  Pacific  ending  in  the 
union  of  the  two  lines  and  the  driving  of  the  golden  spike 
at  Promontory  Point  on  the  north  shore  of  Great  Salt  Lake, 
1086  miles  westward  from  Omaha  and  689  miles  eastward 
from  Sacramento,  on  the  10th  day  of  May,  1869 ; and  of  the 
crowds  in  Omaha,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  New  Orleans, 
Washington,  New  York,  San  Francisco,  and  every  other 
place  of  importance  in  the  whole  nation,  who  patiently 

1 Thomas  Donaldson ’s  ‘ 1 History  of  the  Public  Domain.  ’ ’ 


35,214,978.25  acres 
10,435,048.08 
1,301,040.47 


46,951,066.80 

607,741.76 


46,343,325.04 


Railroads 


115 


waited  the  sounds  of  the  bells  rung  in  unison  with  the 
sounds  of  the  strokes  upon  the  spike,  transmitted  instan- 
taneously through  the  intervening  space  by  the  electric 
telegraph. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  benefits  that  have  come 
from  the  railways  through  the  increased  facilities  for  trans- 
portation and  the  corresponding  gain  to  civilization  has 
amply  repaid  the  Government  for  all  its  bounties,  notwith- 
standing some  of  them  were  unnecessary,  in  fact,  a willful 
waste  and  led  to  an  orgy  of  financial  and  political  corrup- 
tion a little  later. 

The  Credit  Mobilier. — Perhaps  the  most  widely  noticed 
scandal  connected  with  the  railroads  was  the  scheme  known 
as  the  Credit  Mobilier.  This  was  made  much  of  by  the 
Grange  and  other  anti-monopoly  movements  which  reached 
their  height  in  the  ’seventies.  Charges  having  been  made 
that  many  congressmen  had  been  bribed  by  an  organiza- 
tion known  as  the  Credit  Mobilier,  a Congressional  investi- 
gation was  made,20  Thomas  Durant,  vice  president,  and 
other  leading  stockholders  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
secured  a controlling  interest  in  the  stock  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Fiscal  Agency  in  1864  and  had  its  name  changed  to 
the  Credit  Mobilier  of  America.  One  of  the  ostensible 
functions  of  the  company  was  to  loan  money  for  railroad 
construction.  The  same  men  were  instrumental  in  award- 
ing the  contract  for  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road to  one  of  their  number,  Oakes  Ames,  a member  of  the 
United  States  House  of  Representatives,  for  stipulated 
amounts  per  mile  for  the  different  sections  ranging  from 
$42,000  to  $96,000,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  $47,000,- 
000.  The  contract  was  right  away  transferred  to  seven 
trustees  composed  of  the  same  controlling  stockholders, 
who  were  to  execute  it  receiving  therefor  $3000  per  year 
each,  and  the  profits  were  to  be  divided  among  those  stock- 
holders of  the  Credit  Mobilier  of  America  who  would 
comply  with  certain  conditions.  The  Credit  Mobilier 
agreed  to  furnish  the  necessary  money  at  7 per  cent  per 
annum  and  2^>  per  cent  commission,  not  to  exceed  the 

20  “House  Keports,  ” 42  Cong.,  3d  Session,  No.  77. 


116 


Railroads 


amount  provided  in  the  contract  to  be  paid  by  the  Union 
Pacific  company.  These  same  leading  stockholders  of  the 
Union  Pacific  being  also  controlling  stockholders  of  the 
Credit  Mobilier  were  thus,  because  the  contract  prices  were 
said  to  be  twice  the  actual  constructing  prices,  making  a 
big  profit,  practically  all  of  which  was  coming  from  the 
United  States  treasury.  Complaints  were  being  made  and 
adverse  legislation  was  feared.  Stock  in  Credit  Mobilier 
was  offered  to  members  of  congress  at  a very  low  figure  on 
which  it  is  said  they  made  dividends  of  340  per  cent.  It 
amounted  to  this:  The  men  entrusted  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  road  let  the  contract  for  its  construction  to 
themselves  at  a figure  double  its  real  cost,  and  pocketed  the 
profits,  estimated  at  about  $30,000,000.  These  same  men 
started  the  scheme,  which  afterward  became  common,  of 
watering  the  stock,  that  is  increasing  the  outstanding  stock, 
and  distributing  it  as  dividends,  upon  the  plea  that  the 
property  had  increased  without  any  new  outlay  of  money. 
It  also  appears  to  be  a method  of  earning  dividends  upon 
money  never  invested. 

Railroad  Consolidation. — It  has  been  shown  that  at  the 
beginning  railroad  building  consisted  of  short  stretches 
from  town  to  town,  or  from  the  end  of  one  water  com- 
munication to  the  beginning  of  another.  It  was  but  reason- 
able that  these  would  join  for  the  purpose  of  through 
traffic.  The  result  was  also  better  efficiency  as  the  equip- 
ment could  be  used  to  better  advantage ; the  terminal  costs 
were  reduced  as  there  were  not  so  many  of  them ; and,  what 
may  have  been  a leading  cause,  the  control,  and  perhaps 
prevention,  of  competition.  Unrestricted  competition 
caused  rate  wars ; rates  once  down  it  was  difficult  to  get 
them  back  and  frequently  bankruptcy  occurred.  Govern- 
ment regulations  were  made  prohibiting  rate  agreements 
and  pooling.  Such  apparently  hastened  consolidation. 
One  objection  to  consolidation  was  the  concentration  of 
vast  financial  powers  in  the  hands  of  a few,  and  since  money 
had  much  influence  in  Washington  and  in  the  state  capitals, 
political  power  as  well.  This  and  combinations  of  other 
industrial  concerns  were  causes  which  brought  about  the 


Railroads 


117 


enactment  of  the  Sherman  Anti-Trust  law  of  July  2,  1890.21 
This  law  did  not  come  in  time  to  stop  consolidation  and  it 
may  be  doubtful  if  it  would  for  the  Supreme  Court  has  de- 
cided that  combinations  are  not  unlawful  unless  they 
exercise  an  unreasonable  restraint  upon  trade.22 

The  methods  of  consolidation  are : merger  or  outright 
purchase,  in  which  case  the  individual  lines  lose  their 
separate  identity;  stock  purchase , wherein  a controlling 
share  of  the  stock  of  another  road  is  held  by  the  purchas- 
ing line  or  by  a holding  company;  lease  usually  for  long 
periods,  a rental  being  paid  periodically  for  the  use  of  the 
line ; and,  community  of  interest,  that  is  the  establishment 
of  friendly  relations.  The  consolidations  are  more  often 
financial  than  physical.  When  two  roads  physically  com- 
bine under  one  management  it  is  customary  to  reorganize 
and  assume  the  same  name.  In  the  consolidations  given  in 
the  table  below  many  of  the  roads  are  operated  separately 
and  almost  independently  but  are  dominated  by  common 
financial  interests  with  common  policies  or  very  friendly 
relations.  Some  of  the  principal  consolidations  prior  to 
1912  are : 23 


Vanderbilt  Interests 

Mileage 


Boston  & Albany 392 

New  York  Central 3,591 

Lake  Shore  & Michigan 

Southern 1,663 

Michigan  Central 1,805 

N ew  Y ork,  Chicago  & St . L.  561 

Lake  Erie  & Western 886 

Big  Four 1,979 

Pittsburgh  & Lake  Erie. . . 215 

Chicago,  Indiana  & South- 
ern   329 

Other  affiliated  eastern 

lines 1,759 

Western  Maryland  * 575 

Chicago  & North  Western 

Systems 9,827 


Total 23,582 


* Jointly  wi 


Morgan  Interests 

Mileage 


Erie  Railroad 2,565 

Pere  Marquette 2,334 

Southern  Railroad  System  . . 8,667 
Cincinnati,  New  Orleans 

& Texas  Pacific 335 

Mobile  & Ohio 1,114 

Atlantic  Coast  Line 6,818 

Louisville  & Nashville 4,590 

Chicago  & Great  Western  . . . 1,495 
Total 27fm 


Harriman  Interests 

Oregon  Short  Line 1,646 

Oregon  Railway  & Naviga- 
tion Company 1,737 

Union  Pacific  System 
(remainder) 3,791 

Gould  Interests. 


21  U.  S.  Statutes,  51  Cong.,  1 Sess.,  Chap.  DCXLVII. 

“Digest  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  Reports,  Vol.  IV,  “Monopoly,” 
pp.  4043-4052,  The  Lawyers  Co-operative  Publishing  Company, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1908. 

“Funk  and  Wagnalls’  Encyclopedia. 


118 


Railroads 


Mileage 


Southern  Pacific 10,257 

Illinois  Central  System . . . 6,340 

Central  of  Georgia 1,915 

Baltimore  & Ohio 4,555 

Delaware  & Hudson 875 

San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles  & 

Salt  Lake 1,105 

Cincinnati,  Hamilton  & 
Dayton 1,015 


Total 33,236 


Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  Fe 10,472 

Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
St.  Paul  System 9,657 

Seaboard  Air  Line 3,084 

Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Interests 

Pennsylvania  Lines 11,197 

Norfolk  & Western 1,990 


Total 13,187 


Gould  Interests 

Wabash  System 2,663 

Wheeling  & Lake  Erie . . . 457 

Missouri  Pacific  System  f 3,920 
St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain 

& Southern  f 313 

St.  Louis,  Southwestern  f 1,675 

Texas  & Pacific  f 1,991 

International  & Great 

Northern  f 1,159 

Denver  & Rio  Grande  J . . 2,778 

Western  Pacific  f 979 


Moore  Interests 


Mileage 

Rock  Island  System 8,144 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  & 

Western  t 1,052 

Lehigh  Valley  § 1,431 


Total 10,627 


Hill  Interests 

Great  Northern 7,397 

Northern  Pacific 6,281 

Chicago,  Burlington  & 

Quincy 10,443 

Colorado  & Southern 1,249 


25,370 


New  Haven  Interests 
New  York,  New  Haven  & 


Hartford 2,887 

Boston  & Maine 3,594 


Total 6,481 


Hawley  Interests 

Minneapolis  & St.  Louis.  . . 1,027 

Iowa  Central 559 

Toledo,  St.  Louis  & Western  451 

’Frisco  System 7,147 

Chicago  & Alton 1,025 

Chesapeake  & Ohio  System . 2,232 

Missouri,  Kansas  & Texas . . 3,393 

Hocking  Valley 350 


16,508 


Philadelphia  and  Reading  . . 2,137 


Total 15,935 


Grand  Total  of  above  Groups  and  Systems 198,638 

Total  milage  of  railways  in  the  United  States,  Dec.  31, 1916.  . . . 397,014 

t Jointly  with  Rockefeller.  Kuhn,  Loeb,  & Co.,  Vanderbilt  and  other  interests, 
t Jointly  with  Standard  Oil  interests. 

§ Jointly  with  Erie,  Reading  and  Vanderbilt  interests. 

For  a more  extended  discussion  see  “National  Consolidation  of  Railroads.”  by 
George  H.  Lewis. 


Railroads  119 

Mechanical  Development. — There  is  not  space  to  follow 
in  detail  the  mechanical  development  of  railroads.  The 
rail,  for  instance,  was  at  first  a mere  plank  placed  in  the 
cart  track  to  prevent  rutting;  this  evolved  into  a rail  of 
timber  about  4x6  inches  held  in  proper  position  by  cross- 
ties not  to  be  considered  as  sleepers  or  supports  especially. 
On  top  of  the  rail  was  later  placed  a strap  iron.  Since  this 
strap  iron  under  the  wheel  loads  curled  up,  thicker  plates 
began  to  be  used.  Then  cast-iron  rails  some  4 or  5 feet 
long  from  tie  to  tie,  cast  deeper  at  the  middle  for  greater 
strength.  Then  the  rolling  mills  were  becoming  sufficiently 
improved  to  roll  out  wrought-iron  rails,  at  first  rectangular 
plates,  then  T-rails  held  up  by  chairs  and  finally  through  a 
dozen  or  more  forms  to  Bessemer,  then  open-hearth  steel 
rail  shapes  as  at  present  used.  The  fastenings  and  fish 
plates  have  gone  through  a stage  of  evolution.  The  track 
soon  assumed  a standard  form  and  has  retained  it  with 
little  variation  notwithstanding  attempts  to  use  steel  and 
concrete  ties. 

The  freight  cars,  at  first  boxes  with  wheels  on  them,  have 
gradually  developed  into  monsters  of  steel  with  draw  bars, 
automatic  brakes  and  couplings.  Passenger  cars  at  first 
very  variable  were  developed  from  stage  coaches  and 
Conestoga  wagons  hitched  together.  In  Europe  they  re- 
mained short,  like  stage  coaches  with  side  doors.  In  the 
United  States  they  lengthened  out  with  seats  through  the 
interior  and  doors  and  platforms  at  the  ends.  Platforms  were 
eventually  housed  in  with  vestibules.  Both  types  have  their 
advantages  and  disadvantages.  Sleeping  cars  seem  to  be  a de- 
velopment of  the  canal  and  steamboat  sleeping  quarters. 
Here  a single  company  early  obtaining  a working,  if  not  a 
legal,  monopoly  of  the  business  of  making  and  operating 
sleepers.  As  a result  no  improvements  of  note  have 
appeared  in  them  for  years.  For  financial  efficiency  the 
monopoly  seems  to  be  a good  thing ; for  mechanical  progress 
it  is  not. 

Locomotives  have  shown  a continual  progress.  One 
reason  perhaps  is  their  short  lives;  new  ones  must  always 
be  coming  along  and  there  is  ample  opportunity  for  ex- 


120 


Railroads 


perimentation.  From  the  Tom  Thumb  to  the  powerful 
Mountain  Type  is  a long  climb,  but  as  each  step  was  taken 
the  individual  changes  were  not  very  noticeable.  Like  the 
hour-hand  of  a watch  only  by  observing  its  position  at  times 
quite  separated  can  it  be  noticed  to  have  traveled. 

In  fact  the  entire  railway  system  with  its  millions  of 
cars  operating  on  hundreds  of  roads  has  grown  complex 
and  yet  standardized.  To  get  a common  gauge  that  cars  from 
one  road  might  pass  to  another  required  an  act  of  Con- 
gress. At  first  companies  adopted  diverse  gauges  that  their 
cars  could  not  go  onto  another  road,  but  when  transconti- 
nental roads  were  to  he  built  and  through  lines  of  traffic 
established  President  Lincoln  was  called  upon  to  set  a 
gauge.  He  “side-tracked”  the  matter  and  threw  it  onto 
Congress,  who  established  the  distance  4 feet  8V2  inches  as 
the  standard  width  between  rails. 

Without  the  telegraph  the  present  amplification  of  rail- 
road business  could  not  have  taken  place.  The  early  trains 
traveled  by  time  schedule.  No  extra  train  could  be  added, 
although  looking-posts  were  established  at  the  stations  up 
which  the  train  men  could  climb  to  watch  for  the  smoke 
of  an  approaching  train.  Now  every  division  point  must 
have  its  coterie  of  dependable  dispatchers.  Each  wire 
carries  multiple  messages.  Electric  signals  and  other 
safety  devices  to  lessen  accidents  are  universal,  while  the 
bewildering  network  of  tracks  in  the  ordinary  city  yard 
are  operated  easily  from  distant  towers  by  interlocking 
switches.  That  railroads  have  brought  about  an  industrial 
and  social  revolution,  that  they  have  increased  enormously 
the  country’s  transportation,  that  they  have  thus  been  very 
instrumental  in  bringing  the  present  civilization  to  its  high 
and  uniform  state  of  attainment,  cannot  be  denied. 

The  Evolution  of  the  Sleeping  Car. — Mr.  Husband  has 
made  a very  interesting  book  of  the  story  of  the  Pullman 
car  and  its  evolution  24  in  which  he  traces  with  much  detail, 
step  by  step,  the  improvements  from  1836,  when  the  first 

34 1 1 The  Story  of  the  Pullman  Car,”  by  Joseph  Husband.  A.  C. 
MeClurg  & Company,  Chicago,  1917.  Cf.  Literary  Digest,  February 
10,  1923,  p.  25. 


<D  Underwood  and  Underwood 


MODERN  LOCOMOTIVES 


Railroads 


121 


sleeping  car  was  offered  to  the  traveling  public,  to  the  most 
modern  parlor  car  now  in  use.  The  discomfort  and  incon- 
venience of  travelers  by  rail  was  so  much  greater  than  that 
by  canal  that  only  the  greater  speed  of  the  former  caused 
it  to  forge  ahead  of  the  latter.  As  the  mileage  of  the 
roads  increased  so  also  did  the  comforts  of  travel.  It  has 
already  been  noted  that  sparks  set  fire  to  the  clothing  of 
passengers.  Soon  box-like  cars  replaced  the  open  carriages 
and  bogie  trucks  replaced  the  rigid  wheels,  the  former 
giving  much  more  protection  and  the  latter  comfort  while 
rounding  curves.  But  yet  passengers  were  herded  like 
cattle  on  stiff-backed  narrow  benches  in  cars  with  scant 
head  clearance  and  width.  Clean  stone  ballast  for  the 
road  bed  had  not  yet  been  thought  of  and  the  dust  blew  in 
clouds  through  the  open  windows  in  the  summer  time,  and 
a stove  vitiated  the  air  in  the  winter.  There  were  no 
screens  or  vestibules.  It  is  a far  cry  from  the  dim  flaring 
candle  to  the  brilliant  white  incandescent  electric  lights. 
Passenger  cars  were  rapidly  improved  until  by  1844  they 
had  taken  on  something  of  the  appearance  of  the  present 
coach. 

George  M.  Pullman,  a Chicago  contractor,  having  ex- 
perienced the  inconveniences  of  railway  travel  and  also 
being  acquainted  from  close  association  with  the  Erie 
Canal  and  the  sleeping  arrangements  of  the  canal  boats, 
had  visions  of  similar  or  better  rail  comforts.  In  1858  he 
engaged  Leonard  Seibert,  an  employee  of  the  Chicago  & 
Alton  Railroad,  to  remodel  two  coaches  into  the  first  Pull- 
man sleeping  cars.  Mr.  Pullman’s  invention  of  upper  berth 
construction  whereby  it  could  be  closed  during  the  day  and 
serve  as  a receptacle  for  bedding  was  introduced  into  these 
cars,  before  which  time  sleeping  car  bunks  had  been 
stationary  and  on  one  side  only.  The  success  of  his  ven- 
ture was  such  that  he  established  a shop  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  cars  and  employed  technical  skill  to  plan  and 
make  them.  He  had  such  organizing  ability,  however, 
that  before  his  death  he  saw  the  Pullman  Company  hold- 
ing a practical  monopoly  of  all  the  sleeping  cars  in  the 


122 


Railroads 


country,  with  through  cars  scheduled  so  that  change  of 
Pullman  was  unnecessary  from  coast  to  coast,  or  if  a 
change  had  to  be  made  it  was  merely  a transfer  from  one 
car  to  a connecting  car  on  another  route.  A single  ticket 
will  carry  a passenger  from  Portland,  Maine,  to  San 
Francisco,  by  way  of  Washington,  D.C.,  New  Orleans  and 
Los  Angeles  with  only  two  changes  of  cars,  namely,  at  New 
York  and  Washington,  a total  distance  of  4,199  miles. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  some  26,000,000 
persons  are  annually  accommodated  by  the  7500  ears  ope- 
rated by  this  company. 

Street  Car  Service. — Now  that  more  than  one  half  the 
population  of  the  United  States  live  in  cities  makes  the 
matter  of  local  transportation  of  at  least  passing  interest. 
Railroads  were  at  first  tram  cars  and  many  of  them  were 
built  through  the  city  streets,  it  was  easy,  therefore,  to 
make  of  them  street  cars  caring  for  such  local  traffic  as 
desired  to  take  advantage  of  them.  They  became  a popular 
means  of  local  transportation  in  the  decade  1850-60.  As 
the  demand  became  greater  the  one-horse  car  gave  way  to 
the  two-horse  with  its  longer  body  and  greater  capacity. 
These  not  being  sufficient  steam  locomotives  were  used  in 
some  cities,  in  others  the  tracks  were  elevated  above  the 
surface,  the  first  in  New  York  in  1876,  or  depressed  below 
with  steam  locomotives  operating  trains  of  cars  rapidly 
loaded  and  unloaded  at  stopping  points  about  four  blocks 
apart.  In  1879  or  1880  in  San  Francisco  where  the  hills 
were  too  steep  for  horses  the  cable  car  was  designed,  where- 
by an  endless  cable  operated  from  a central  station  ran  con- 
tinuously in  a trench  or  conduit  under  the  track.  A grip 
attached  to  the  car  could  be  made  to  take  hold  of  this  cable 
and  the  car  was  thus  drawn  along.  Notwithstanding  they 
were  expensive  to  install  cable  cars  were  rapidly  replacing 
horse-drawn  cars  when  electric  traction  came  in  and  dis- 
placed them. 

Electric  Traction. — There  are  reports  of  attempts  to  ob- 
tain magnetic  traction  by  the  use  of  batteries,  but  not  until 
the  electric  dynamo  and  motor  had  become  practical  work- 


Railroads 


123 


ing  machines  was  anything  like  a successful  working 
electrically  propelled  car  developed.  The  ordinary  method 
is  to  generate  the  electricity  at  a central  station,  carry  it 
along  the  track  by  means  of  a wire,  from  which  it  is  taken 
by  a trolley  or  some  form  of  conductor  to  a motor  on  the 
car  completing  the  circuit  through  the  track  and  ground. 
Such  a car  was  practically  demonstrated  at  the  Berlin 
Exposition  of  1879,  by  Werner  Siemens,  with  a line  219 
yards  long.25  This  was  the  first  practical  electric  railway. 
But  long  before  this  time  in  America  experiments  had  been 
made  with  electric  traction.  Dever  exhibited  a model  at 
Springfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1835. 26  In  1879,  the  year  of 
Siemens’  exhibition,  another  model  railway  having  a 
“third  rail”  to  carry  the  current  was  exhibited  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Massachusetts.  Edison  had  a car  in  operation  at 
Menlo  Park,  New  Jersey,  in  1882,  and  the  following  year 
a small  road  carried  passengers  at  an  exhibit  in  Chicago. 
Miniature  roads  were  exhibited  at  Philadelphia,  Denver, 
Cleveland,  New  Orleans,  and  possibly  elsewhere.  The  first 
electric  railway  built  and  operated  for  profit  in  American 
streets  was  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in  1885  on  2^2  miles  of 
track.  During  the  same  year  2 miles  between  Baltimore 
and  Hampton  were  put  in  operation.27  By  1890  the 
number  of  cities  having  trolley  cars  had  increased  to  forty- 
nine.28  From  that  time  on  the  change  from  horse-drawn 
cars  was  very  rapid.  Trolley  lines  were  even  extended 
throughout  the  country  districts.  At  one  time  it  looked  as 
though  they  might  replace  steam  cars  for  passenger  traffic, 
especially  short-haul  traffic.  There  was  a complete  net- 
work of  interurban  trolley  lines  in  the  Eastern  and  Central 
Western  states  by  1910.29  The  trolley  is  also  being  used 
upon  hard-surfaced  roads  without  tracks  by  buses  and 
trucks.  Steam  railroads  running  into  New  York  City 

25  Funk  and  Wagnalls’  Encyclop. 

26  “Special  Reports,  Streets  and  Electric  Railways,”  U.  S.  Census 
Bureau  (1902).  This,  of  course,  was  not  a practical  machine. 

22  “American  Nation,”  Yol.  XXIII,  39. 

28  U.  S.  Eleventh  Census  (1890),  “Transportation  on  Land.” 

29  See  Maps  in  Century  Dictionary. 


124 


Railroads 


through  the  tubes  use  electric  locomotives  to  draw  the 
trains,  thus  avoiding  the  smoke  nuisance  and  the  danger 
therewith  connected.  The  Milwaukee  Railroad  is  using 
electric  locomotives  on  its  mountain  division  in  Montana 
and  Idaho.  Electricity  is  generated  by  water  power;  also 
the  trains  going  down  grade  are  run  against  a dynamo  and 
storage  battery  thus  acting  as  a brake  as  well  as  renewing 
the  batteries. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Brown,  William  H.,  “History  of  the  First  Locomotive  in 
America.”  D.  Appleton  & Co.,  New  York,  1871. 

Burch,  Edward  P.,  “Electric  Traction  for  Railway  Trains,” 
Chap.  I (Historical).  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  New  York, 
1911. 

Callender,  Guy  S.,  “The  Economic  History  of  the  United 
States,”  Chapter  VIII,  “Transportation,”  Ginn  & Co., 
New  York. 

Census,  U.  S.  Eleventh  (1890)  “Transportation  on  Land.” 
Census  Bureau,  U.  S.  Special  Report  (1902)  “Streets  and 
Electric  Railways.” 

Davis,  John  P.,  “Union  Pacific  Railway.”  S.  C.  Griggs  & 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Donaldson,  Thomas,  “History  of  the  Public  Domain,”  Pub- 
lished by  order  of  an  act  of  Congress,  1884. 

Dunbar,  Seymour,  “A  History  of  Travel  in  America,”  4 volumes. 

Bobbs-Merrill  Company,  Indianapolis. 

Ericsson,  John,  “Life  of”  by  William  C.  Church,  Chap.  IV. 

Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York. 

Husband,  Joseph,  “The  Story  of  the  Pullman  Car.”  A.  C. 

McClurg  & Company,  Chicago,  1917. 

Johnson,  Emory  R.,  “Elements  of  Transportation,”  1909.  D. 

Appleton  & Company,  New  York. 

Larrabee,  Wm.,  “The  Railroad  Question,”  Shulte  Publishing 
Company,  Chicago,  1893. 

Le  Rossignol,  J.  E.,  “Monopolies  Past  and  Present.”  T.  Y. 
Crowell  Company,  New  York. 

Lewis,  George  H.,  “National  Consolidation  of  Railroads.” 
Dodd,  Mead  & Co.,  New  York. 

Maps  of  Interurban  Lines,  Century  Atlas.  Century  Company, 
New  York. 

Martin,  E.  W.,  “History  of  the  Grange  Movement,  or  The 
Farmer’s  War  against  Monopoly.”  A subscription  book 
published  in  1874.  National  Publishing  Company,  Chicago. 


Railroads 


125 


Poore,  Henry  V.,  “History  of  Railroads  and  Canals  of  the 
United  States,”  Vol.  I,  p.  377.  New  York,  1860. 

Sanborn,  John  B.,  “Congressional  Grants  of  Land  in  Aid  of 
Railways.”  University  of  Wisconsin  Bulletin,  Vol.  II,  No. 
3,  Econ.  pol.  Sci.  and  Hist.  Series. 

Selfridge,  H.  Gordon,  “The  Romance  of  Commerce.”  John 
Lane,  London. 

Sparks,  E.  E.,  “National  Development,”  Vol.  XXIII,  The 
American  Nation  Series,  Chapter  III  and  IV.  Harper  & 
Brothers,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Statutes,  1862-1864,  Pacific  Railway  Acts,  Investigation 
of  the  Credit  Mobilier. 

U.  S.  Statutes,  41st  Congress,  1st  Session,  Chap.  DCXLVII, 
Sherman  Anti-Trust  Law. 

U.  S.  Statutes,  Railroad  Bills,  1850-1880  House  Report  42d 
Cong.,  3d  Session,  No.  77. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  MODERN  WAGON  ROAD 

Gone  are  the  long  picturesque  lines  of  emigrant  and 
freight  wagons,  with  their  Conestogas,  their  stage  coaches, 
their  oxen,  their  mules  and  horses ; gone  are  the  hospitable 
inns  with  their  gay  and  social  crowds  of  happy  travelers; 
gone  are  the  nightly  wagon-formed  corrals  into  which  the 
freighter  was  wont  to  drive  his  animals  to  prevent  their 
stampeding  by  the  wily  red-skin;  gone  are  the  complacent 
but  slow-going  canal  barges  so  plentiful  and  popular  that 
at  the  cry  of  “low  bridge,”  everybody  ducked  by  reflex 
action ; gone  are  the  floating  palaces  on  the  vacillating  and 
changeable  waters  of  the  interior  river  systems;  these 
yesteryear  implements  of  transportation  have  been  all  but 
superseded  by  more  powerful  or  more  speedy  instruments. 
The  canals  are  very  frequently  but  weed-grown  scum-covered 
channels  through  the  soil,  while  many  of  the  wagon  roads 
are  similarly  weed-grown  or  dust-covered  lanes  on  top  of 
the  soil.  Perhaps  a rejuvenation  will  come.  Already  the 
public  road  shows  signs  of  a more  vigorous  growth  than  the 
world  has  ever  witnessed  even  in  the  heyday  of  road  build- 
ing under  the  Roman  Caesars. 

Public  highways  began  their  desuetude  (partial  at  least) 
about  1830,  at  the  advent  of  the  steam  railway.  To  be 
sure,  arrangements  were  made  for  the  laying  out  and  care 
of  roads.  There  were,  also,  usually  poll  and  property  texes 
levied  for  road  and  bridge  purposes.  But  generally  the 
old  English  custom  of  allowing  such  taxes  to  be  worked 
out  prevailed.  In  Iowa,  for  instance,1  the  county  court 
was  given  “general  supervision  over  the  highways”  which 

1 Code  of  1851. 


126 


TRANSPORTATION  ACROSS  DEATH  VALLEY 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road  127 

/ 

must  be  66  feet  wide  unless  otherwise  specially  directed. 
The  manner  of  establishing  roads  is  set  forth  and  the 
county  judge  may  if  he  wishes  call  in  a competent  sur- 
veyor and  ‘ ‘ cause  the  line  of  the  road  to  be  accurately  sur- 
veyed and  plainly  marked  out.”  “Where  crops  have  been 
sowed  or  planted  before  the  road  is  finally  established  the 
opening  thereof  shall  be  delayed  until  the  crop  is  har- 
vested.” The  county  supervisor  must  appoint  a deputy 
in  each  township,  but  the  deputy  “must  regard  himself  as 
an  actual  laboring  hand”  and  his  compensation  “shall  not 
exceed  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  for  each  day  actually 
employed.”  It  is  the  duty  of  the  supervisor  “to  place  and 
preserve  the  roads  in  as  good  a condition  as  the  funds  at 
his  disposal  will  permit,  and  to  place  guide  boards  at  such 
points  as  he  may  think  expedient  or  as  the  court  may 
direct.”  In  the  Eastern  states  and  in  the  hilly  districts 
the  method  of  locating  each  individual  road  to  follow  a 
trail  or  stream  or  ridge  usually  prevailed,  but  in  many  of 
the  prairie  states  roads  were  located  by  law  on  each  section 
line  and  in  some  states  on  each  half-section  line  as  well. 
This  made  every  man’s  farm  adjacent  to  a road,  although 
it  was  certainly  a waste  of  land.  In  nearly  all  the  prairie 
states  the  legal  right  of  way  is  now  66  feet,2  in  other  states 
it  is  made  49%  and  33  feet.  Massachusetts  state-aid  roads 
have  a minimum  of  50  feet.  Texas  divided  her  roads  into 
three  classes  with  widths  of  60,  30  and  20  feet.  New 
Jersey  has  some  state  roads  33  feet  wide.  On  the  whole 
66  feet  seems  to  be  favored.  This,  if  roads  are  made  on 
every  half -section  mile,  appropriates  almost  5 per  cent  of 
the  land,  a quantity  that  by  proper  selection  and  location 
might  be  materially  reduced.  The  section  line  method  is 
liked  by  farmers  because  it  leaves  the  fields  rectangular, 
a convenient  form  for  efficiency  in  cultivation. 

The  Influence  of  the  Bicycle  on  Roads. — Road  construc- 
tion remained  in  a lackadaisical  state  with  here  and  there 
a spurt,  with  now  and  then  an  intelligent  supervisor  who 
appreciated  the  need  of  better  wagon  roads,  until  the  com- 

2“ Highway  Engineering,”  by  G.  B.  Chatburn,  pp.  125-126. 


128 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


ing  of  the  bicycle.  That  machine  may  be  considered  a 
descendant  of  the  old  celeripede,  which  consisted  of  two 
wheels  connected  by  a horizontal  bar  on  which  the  rider  sat 
and  propelled  himself  by  pushing  with  his  feet  alternately 
on  the  ground,  through  the  velocipede,  which  had  the  front 
wheel  pivoted  to  the  framework  for  easy  steering.  The 
attachment  of  pedals  is  credited  to  a Scotchman,  Kirk- 
patrick Macmillan,  about  1840,  who  applied  them  to  the  rear 
wheel.  In  1886  Lallement  in  the  United  States  and 
Michaux  in  France,  placed  the  pedals  on  the  front  wheels. 
The  front  wheel  was  gradually  increased  in  diameter  un- 
til in  the  ’eighties  it  sometimes  measured  as  much  as  60 
inches.  The  rear  wheel  decreased  as  the  front  increased. 
The  stability  of  the  wheel  was  not  very  great ; headers 
were  common,  and  mounting  was  difficult.  To  overcome 
these  defects  of  the  “ordinary”  there  was  developed, 
1885,  the  “safety,”  approximately  the  present  bicycle,  in 
which  the  pedals  are  carried  on  a separate  shaft  and  the 
power  transmitted  by  chain  and  sprocket  to  the  rear  wheel. 
With  the  invention  of  the  Dunlop 3 pneumatic  tire,  and 
consequent  overcoming  of  much  of  the  jolting  so  objection- 
able in  more  solid  tires,  the  adoption  of  the  bicycle  as  a 
means  of  pleasure  and  business  locomotion  was  extremely 
rapid.  The  cycling  boom  reached  its  height  about  1896 
or  1897,  by  which  time  a great  many  large  manufactories 
of  bicycles  had  been  established  over  the  country.  A 
frenzy  seized  upon  the  people  and  men  and  women  of  all 
stations  were  riding  wheels;  ardent  cyclists  were  found  in 
every  city,  village,  and  hamlet. 

As  a result  of  the  cycling  craze  there  were  organized 
numerous  “wheel  clubs”  and  finally  a national  one  known 
as  the  League  of  American  Wheelmen,  organized  about 
1887.  Its  object  partly  social  and  partly  to  popularize 
the  new  sport  of  cycling,  became  a few  years  later  almost 
wholly  a form  of  propaganda  for  “better  roads.”  News- 
paper space  was  freely  utilized;  many  papers  making 

’ J.  B.  Dunlop,  a suxgeon  of  Dublin,  invented  the  pneumatic  tire 
in  1888. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


129 


special  and  regular  features  of  “good  roads”;  pamphlets 
were  published  and  distributed  broadly,  and  a magazine 
was  established.4 

At  first  the  wheelmen  were  met  by  the  cry  of  selfish- 
ness, with  the  argument  that  the  city  folk  wanted  the 
farmers  to  build  good  roads  for  their  pleasure;  but  men 
of  foresight,  men  of  affairs,  saw  the  benefits  accruing  to 
all  kinds  of  business  and  added  their  influence.  Mr. 
Potter,  a lawyer  of  New  York  City,  who  had  graduated 
in  civil  engineering  at  Cornell  University  before  turning 
to  the  law,  became  interested  in  the  good  roads  move- 
ment, studied  and  made  himself  one  of  the  best  posted 
men  on  roads  in  the  United  States.  When  the  League  of 
American  Wheelmen  decided  to  start  a magazine  he  was 
selected  for  its  editor  and  manager.  Under  his  direction 
the  subscription  list  of  Good  Roads  soon  reached  more 
than  30, 000. 5 “The  articles  strive  to  show  the  value  of 
roads  in  a commercial  sense  and  by  a comparison  with  other 
countries  demonstrate  how  far  behind  America  is  in  this 
respect.  ” Pictures  of  good  and  bad  roads  were  used  freely, 
thus  holding  the  attention  where  reading  matter  alone 
would  have  failed.  European  roads,  the  French  especially, 
were  described  and  played  up  through  newspapers  gen- 
erally. Scarcely  a journal  that  did  not  run  leaders  and 
other  articles  on  the  benefits  of  good  roads  and  methods  of 
building  and  maintaining  the  same.  Our  ordinary  roads 
were  decried  on  every  hand.  A lady  voices  her  opinion 
thus  :6 

I came  to  this  country  with  the  best  prejudices,  having  en- 
joyed the  privilege  of  meeting  with  some  of  its  noblest  repre- 
sentatives in  my  fatherland.  I admired  much  the  individual  in- 
dependence, the  high  standing  of  women,  the  gentle  sway  of  the 
church,  the  liberal  education  of  the  children,  and  the  unsurpassed 
charity  that  extends  even  to  distant  countries.  I must  confess 

4 One  of  the  early  books  was  entitled  “The  Gospel  of  Good  Eoads, ” 
by  I.  B.  Potter,  and  appealed  directly  to  the  farming  interests. 

6 New  York  Times,  September  11,  1892. 

6 Adolphine  Hingst,  under  the  heading  ‘ ‘ Surprised  at  America.  A 
European’s  Shock  on  Seeing  its  Eoads  and  Highways,”  Boston 
Transcript,  August  10,  1892. 


130 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


that  I was  struck  with  the  bad  roads  everywhere,  in  cities  as 
well  as  in  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time,  amused  at  the  com- 
pensation one  gets  when  one  meets  with  an  accident.  Why  not 
spend  the  money  in  the  improvements  of  the  roads — make  these 
roads  perfect,  and  then  let  everybody  look  out  for  himself. 

In  summer  the  worst  road  is  good;  but  in  winter  schools  have 
to  be  closed,  the  children  are  stopped  in  their  regular  pursuits, 
learning  becomes  desultory,  and  the  strong  feeling  of  duty  that 
has  to  be  developed  from  the  very  beginning  of  life  by  strict 
good  habits  gets  slackened  and  slighted;  and  so  also  the  attend- 
ance of  the  churches — for  many  people  the  only  comfort  in  the 
struggle  for  existence — becomes  an  impossibility.  And  especially 
the  painstaking  farmer  must  find  it  hard  to  drive  his  team  through 
the  muddy,  clayey  road,  in  bringing  the  fruits  of  his  labor  to  the 
market.  I hear  him,  with  many  a suppressed  oath  on  everything 
under  the  sun,  dragging  his  cartload  through  the  mud  and  stand- 
ing pools,  and  in  snowstorms  he  is  sometimes  totally  lost.  All 
communication  stops. 

And  so  on  for  a column  or  more.  She  inserts  by  way 
of  anecdote  which  shows  that  two  of  the  greatest  Germans 
who  ever  lived  did  not  think  the  lowly  road  too  insignificant 
to  discuss : 

When  Heinrich  Heine  for  the  first  time  met  with  the  royal 
poet,  Goethe,  he  was  so  impressed  with  the  majesty  of  his 
personality  that  he  could  speak  of  nothing  less  than  the  plum 
trees  on  the  chaussee,  between  Jena  and  Weimar. 

Also  Bill  Nye,  the  humorist,  takes  a rap  at  the  roads  in 
this  manner.7 

Our  wagon  roads  throughout  the  country  are  generally  a dis- 
grace to  civilization  and  before  we  undertake  to  supply  Jaeger 
underwear  and  sealskin  covered  bibles  with  flexible  backs  to  the 
African  it  might  be  well  to  put  a few  dollars  into  the  relief  of 
galled  and  broken  down  horses  that  have  lost  their  breath  on  our 
miserable  highways. 

The  country  system,  as  I recall  it,  was  in  my  boyhood  about  as 
poor  and  inefficient  as  it  could  well  be.  Each  township  was 
divided  up  into  road  districts,  and  each  road  district  was 
presided  over  by  an  overseer  of  highways,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
collect  so  many  days’  work  or  so  many  dollars  from  each  tax- 
payer in  the  district.  Of  course  no  taxpayer  would  pay  a dollar 

7 Good  Hoads,  September,  1892. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


131 


when  he  could  come  and  make  mud  pies  on  the  road  all  day  and 
visit  and  gossip  with  the  neighbors  and  save  his  dollar  too. 

The  result  seemed  to  be  that  the  work  was  misdirected  and 
generally  an  injury  to  the  road.  With  all  our  respect  to  the 
farmer,  I will  state  right  here  that  he  does  not  know  how  to  make 
roads.  An  all  wise  Providence  never  intended  that  he  should 
know.  The  professional  roadbuilder,  with  the  money  used  by 
the  ignorant  sapheads  and  self-made  road  architects,  would  in  a 
few  years  make  roads  in  the  United  States  over  which  two  or 
three  times  the  present  sized  load  could  be  easily  drawn,  and  the 
dumb  beasts  of  the  Republic  would  rise  up  and  call  us  blessed 
for  doing  it. 

This  bit  of  doggerel  appeared  in  Good  Roads  about  the 
same  time : 


They  May  Be  Sinking  Yet 

Old  farmer  John  drove  off  to  town 
All  on  a rainy  day. 

The  glistening  highway  up  and  down, 
With  mire  shone  all  the  way. 

The  gentle  weeping  raindrops  fell 
And  had  fallen  all  the  night; 

The  bottom  of  that  highway — well ; 

’Twas  literally  out  of  sight. 

But  John  had  hitched  his  sturdy  steeds. 

His  sturdy  steeds  and  true 
That  often  ’mid  such  urgent  needs. 

Had  boldly  struggled  through. 

And  John  had  sworn  a big  round  oath 
With  deep  and  bated  breath, 

He’d  rather  brave  the  deep,  forsooth, 
Thrice  o’er  than  starve  to  death. 

For  visions  of  the  flour  bin, 

’Twas  empty  he  could  see, 

And  for  a week  no  sugar  in 
His  coffee  cup  had  he. 

And  so  amid  the  sea  of  mire. 

Those  steeds  right  valiant  reel, 

While  turbid  waves  creep  higher,  higher, 
Upon  the  wagon  wheel. 


132 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


Oh!  help  ye  powers  that  rule  the  wave, 

Wherever  ye  may  be; 

Reach  down  and  this  poor  mortal  save 
From  out  the  turbid  sea. 

They  sink,  now  just  the  horses’  ears 
Still  struggling  through  the  flood; 

Now  nothing  but  John’s  hat  appears 
Above  that  sea  of  mud. 

The  rich  black  loam  of  Illinois 
Above  that  outfit  met; 

And  since  our  roads  are  bottomless, 

They  may  be  sinking  yet. 

Thus  was  the  propaganda  for  better  roads  spread  during 
the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century.  And  this  is  not 
all  the  country  owes  to  the  enthusiastic  wheelman  of  that 
period.  Their  efforts  had  resulted  in  a stirring  of  the 
whole  populace.  True,  some  were  opposed  to  spending 
money  for  highfalutin  highways,  but  many  of  the  best 
thinkers  of  the  country  caught  the  true  spirit  of  the  wave 
and  did  all  they  could  to  continue  the  good  work.  In  many 
states  organizations  were  formed  and  good  roads  meetings 
called.  In  Des  Moines,  August  16,  1892, 8 more  than  300 
delegates  representing  boards  of  trade,  boards  of  super- 
visors, county  road  conventions,  88  counties  and  130  cities 
met  in  an  enthusiastic  convention  of  two  days’  duration 
with  Judge  E.  H.  Thayer  of  Clinton  as  presiding  officer. 
On  the  programme  were  such  men  as  Horace  Boies,  Gover- 
nor of  the  state,  Judge  Peter  A.  Day,  Railway  Commis- 
sioner, and  Charles  A.  Schaeffer,  President  of  the  State 
University.  The  resolutions  adopted  among  other  things 
recommend  that,  until  further  legislation  can  be  had,  the 
following  steps  by  county  associations  be  taken:  “(1)  To 
set  on  foot  a movement  in  every  township  in  the  respective 
counties  looking  to  the  consolidation  of  road  districts  . . . ; 
(2)  to  impress  on  boards  of  supervisors  the  duty  of  levying 
the  county  fund  tax  . . .;  (3)  where  it  is  apparent  that 
the  public  interests  will  be  best  subserved  by  a larger  im- 
8 Engineering  Record,  August  27,  1892. 


GOOD  ROADS  DAY  IN  JACKSON  CO.,  MO. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


133 


mediate  expenditure  ...  to  urge  . . . the  propriety  of 
submitting  to  the  people  the  voting  of  a higher  levy  or  the 
issuance  of  bonds  ...  to  agitate  in  cities  and  towns  the 
question  of  the  propriety  of  expending  money  beyond  their 
limits  in  improving  highways  leading  thereto  ...” 

While  this  convention  was  in  session  a similar  one  was 
meeting  in  Missouri ; in  fact  practically  all  the  states  in  the 
Union  were  getting  ‘ ‘ in  the  band  wagon.  ’ ’ 

The  League  stopped  not  here,  but  were  interesting  the 
political  men  of  the  country  in  the  issue.  They  visited  the 
president  of  the  United  States,  Benjamin  Harrison,  at 
Washington  in  July,8 9  at  which  time  he  turned  to  Colonel 
Charles  L.  Burdet,  head  of  the  League,  and  said:  “One 
thing ; if  wheelmen  secure  us  good  roads  for  which  they  are 
so  zealously  working,  your  body  deserves  a medal  in  recog- 
nition of  its  philanthropy.” 

The  great  World’s  Fair  was  coming  off  at  Chicago  in 
1893,  and  “good  roads  boosters”  were  extremely  anxious 
that  a suitable  exhibition  be  made  there.  General  Roy 
Stone  framed  a bill  which  was  favorably  reported  by  the 
Senate  Committee  July  23,  1892.  It  was  a bill  to  create  a 
National  Highway  Commission  and  prescribe  its  duties, 
“composed  of  two  Senators  and  five  members  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  and  five  citizens  appointed  by  the 
president”  for  the  purpose  of  a general  inquiry  into  the 
condition  of  highways  in  the  United  States  and  means  for 
their  improvement,  and  especially  the  best  method  of 
securing  a proper  exhibit  at  the  World’s  Columbian  Ex- 
hibition of  approved  appliances  for  road  making,  and  of 
providing  for  public  instruction  in  the  art  during  the  ex- 
hibition.10 

Colonel  Albert  A.  Pope,  of  Boston,  a zealous  road  worker, 
secured  the  opinions  of  hundreds  of  prominent  men,  which 
he  presented  to  the  members  of  congress.  Only  a few  ex- 
tracts can  be  made  here.11 

8 New  York  Times,  Sept.  11,  1892. 

10  Ibid. 

11  Printed  as  a Senate  Document. 


134 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


A want  of  understanding  and  system  has  resulted  in  a nearly 
useless  expenditure  of  enough  labor  and  money  to  have  furnished 
the  settled  portions  of  our  country  with  good  substantial  roads. 

— President  Benjamin  Harrison. 

Looking  at  it  from  a postal  standpoint  enlarged  free  delivery 
or  anything  like  universal  free  delivery  will  have  to  be  post- 
poned until  there  are  better  facilities  of  communication  through 
the  rural  and  sparsely  settled  districts.  The  experiments  that 
we  have  made  in  the  smaller  towns  and  villages  have  proved  the 
practicability  of  greater  extended  free  delivery,  but  without  good 
roads  it  must  necessarily  be  limited  to  the  small  towns. 

— John  Wanamaker,  Postmaster  General. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  in  regard  to 
the  good  construction  of  roads  will  be  of  immense  benefit  to  all 
the  people. 

— John  A.  Noble,  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

I think  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  taking  more  interest 
in  the  improvement  of  good  roads  than  in  any  other  non-political 
matter. 

— 0.  H.  Platte,  Senator  from  Connecticut. 

I have  often  thought  that  the  people,  speaking  of  them  gener- 
ally, have  never  yet  understood  the  value  of  good  roads.  They 
are  not  only  matters  of  convenience,  but  they  are  really  matters 
of  great  economy  in  every  community.  The  farmer  with  one 
team  of  two  horses  is  able  to  move  on  a good  road  more  than  he 
could  move  with  four  horses  and  a wagon  of  much  greater 
strength  on  a poor  road.  This  I have  tested  personally  many 
times.  Farmers  are  constantly  in  need  of  the  use  of  highways 
to  transport  their  property  and  to  move  themselves  from  place 
to  place.  The  average  farmer  is  five  miles  distant  from  the 
nearest  railway  station  and  his  surplus  produce  must  be  moved 
that  distance  year  after  year.  If  he  were  to  compute  the  saving 
that  he  and  his  neighbors  would  have  by  reason  of  first-class 
roadways,  they  would  discover  that  it  would  amount  to  more 
than  the  expense  of  putting  the  roads  in  good  condition  and 
keeping  them  so.  Our  road  system  is  miserably  deficient. 

— William  A.  Peffer,  Senator  from  Kansas  (Populist). 

Aside  from  the  benefits  that  good  roads  bring  to  the  people 
in  times  of  peace  I do  not  know  of  a great  city  in  this  country 
that  is  provided  with  such  highways  as  would  admit  of  the  ex- 
peditions marching  of  a great  army  in  times  of  war.  Washing- 
ton City  is  a fair  example  in  this  regard.  The  highways  lead- 
ing to  this  city  through  Maryland  and  Virginia  are  both  narrow 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


135 


and  crooked.  There  is  not  a single  public  outlet  or  inlet  that 
can  be  called  a great  national  highway. 

— H.  C.  Hansbrough,  Senator  from  North  Dakota. 

In  the  old  Roman  days  all  roads  led  to  Rome,  and  they  were 
good  roads.  They  built  roads  for  military  and  commercial  pur- 
poses, and  the  wisdom  of  their  enterprise  was  apparent  even  in 
that  early  day.  European  nations  to-day  regard  road-making 
as  one  of  their  economic  questions,  and  it  does  seem  that  our 
Government  in  its  honest  endeavor  to  benefit  the  agricultural 
classes,  should  have  thought  of  good  roads  long  ago.  We  want 
and  must  have  splendid  highways,  owned  not  by  corporations 
but  by  the  people.  They  will  be  an  economical  investment,  and 
an  untold  comfort  to  the  traveler. 

— James  E.  Kyle,  Senator  from  South  Dakota. 

The  country  could  spend  no  money  so  economically  and  enlist 
no  genious  so  usefully  as  in  making  better  roads  for  communica- 
tions between  one  neighborhood  and  another. 

— John  W.  Daniel,  Senator  from  Virginia. 

I esteem  good  roads  throughout  the  country  to  be  as  necessary 
as  railroads. 

— Francis  E.  Warren,  Senator  from  Wyoming. 

The  prosperity  of  our  country  depends  so  largely  on  the  pros- 
perity of  our  farmers  that  everything  possible  should  be  done  to 
render  life  in  the  rural  districts  agreeable  as  well  as  profitable 
and  nothing  could  conduce  more  to  the  comfort  and  happiness  of 
our  people  than  the  improvement  of  the  roads. 

— Joseph  Wheeler,  Representative  from  Alabama. 

That  good  roads  in  good  condition  are  always  of  great  value  in 
a military  point  of  view  is  plain  enough;  for  any  section  of 
active  operations  the  prompt  transportation  of  material  and  the 
moving  of  an  army  would  demand  it. 

— Major  General  Oliver  0.  Howard,  United  States  Army. 

The  importance  of  good  roads  has  been  brought  to  my  atten- 
tion most  forcibly  on  many  occasions  when  my  wagon  trains  have 
been  forced  to  move  at  a snail’s  pace  over  almost  impassable 
roads,  and  when  every  hour’s  delay  might  mean  untold  disaster. 
The  expenditure  of  animal  force  on  such  occasions  was  fearful. 
In  times  of  peace  good  roads  are  no  less  important;  the  general 
condition  of  country  roads  is  a very  good  index  of  the  civiliza- 
tion and  prosperity  of  the  community.  It  is  not  difficult  to  show 
by  mathematical  deduction  that  money  expended  in  constructing 


136 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


good  roads  is  economy  from  a financial  standpoint,  while  from  a 
social  standpoint  the  benefits  are  incalculable. 

We  have  splendid  railroads  traversing  the  whole  country  in 
every  direction  and  we  have  in  most  cities  very  creditable  means 
of  rapid  transit,  but  the  country  roads  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  are  really  deplorable.  This  condition  of  affairs  is 
something  like  putting  a boy  at  work  on  Latin  and  Greek  before 
he  has  mastered  the  alphabet  of  his  own  language. 

— Brig.  Gen.  D.  K.  Stanley,  United  States  Army. 

The  above  are  only  a small  portion  of  the  letters  from 
which  they  were  extracted,  but  they  serve  to  show  that  the 
League  of  American  Wheelmen  and  such  men  as  Colonel 
Pope  were  very  active  in  spreading  the  gospel  of  good 
roads.  The  arguments  in  these  and  hundreds  of  other 
letters,  from  men  of  all  classes  and  professions,  of  all 
political  parties  from  all  parts  of  the  nation,  cover  a very 
wide  range  and  the  effect  has  been  lasting. 

About  this  time,  also,  Senator  Charles  F.  Manderson,  of 
Nebraska,  introduced  a concurrent  resolution  in  the  Senate 
to  print  a lot  of  consular  reports  relating  to  streets  and 
highways  in  foreign  countries  and  distribute  them  in  bul- 
letin form.  The  edition  consisted  of  30,000  and  served  to 
show  how  the  United  States  was  lagging  behind  other 
countries  in  the  matter  of  road  building.12 

Office  of  Public  Roads  Inquiry. — A very  few  lines  of 
the  Congressional  Record  serves  to  introduce  the  beginning 
of  a great  instrumentality  for  good  roads  in  America.  On 
January  26,  1893,  Representative  Deborow  introduced  a 
resolution  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  “instructing 
the  committee  on  agriculture  to  incorporate  in  the  agricul- 
tural appropriation  the  sum  of  $15,000  to  be  expended  for 
the  purpose  of  making  investigations  for  a better  system 
of  roads.’’13  On  the  same  day  Representative  Lewis  pre- 
sented a similar  resolution  “instructing  the  committee  on 
agriculture  to  incorporate  in  the  bill  making  appropriations 
for  the  Agricultural  Department  a clause  authorizing  the 

u Cong.  Record,  Yol.  24:  Dec.  15,  1892,  p.  157;  Dec.  21,  p.  261; 
Dec.  22,  p.  300.  Senate  Documents. 

15  Congressional  Record,  Vol.  24,  Jan.  26,  1893,  p.  883. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


137 


Secretary  to  make  inquiry  regarding  public  roads.”14 
Both  resolutions  were  referred  to  the  committee  on  agricul- 
ture. As  a final  result  a statute  carrying  an  appropriation 
of  $10,000  was  approved  March  3,  1893.  Under  this  statute 
the  Office  of  Public  Roads  Inquiries  was  instituted,  October 
3,  1893,  with  “General  Roy  Stone,  of  New  York,  recognized 
as  a superior  civil  engineer,  and  thoroughly  identified  with 
the  popular  movement  toward  the  improvement  of  the  high- 
. ways  in  the  several  states,  in  charge.  ’ ’ 15 

The  Letter  of  Instructions  of  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture to  General  Stone  upon  his  appointment  summarizes 
the  statute  and  defines  the  object  and  scope  of  the  inquiry 
to  be  made.  The  last  paragraph  of  the  instructions  shows 
that  the  old  theory  of  “state  sovereignty,”  still  had  a place 
in  the  mind  of  the  Secretary,  and  it  was  not  for  several 
years  that  this  office  did  more  than  the  mere  collection  of 
information  relative  to  roads.  The  letter  follows  :16 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  the  Secretary, 

Washington,  D.  C.,  October  3,  1893. 

Sir : You  have  been  this  day  appointed  to  supervise  and  carry 
out  the  investigations  pursuant  to  the  statute  approved  March 
3,  1893,  which  has  four  branches : 

(1)  To  make  inquiries  in  regard  to  the  systems  of  road  manage- 
ment throughout  the  United  States. 

(2)  To  make  investigations  in  regard  to  the  best  method  of 
road-making. 

(3)  To  prepare  didactic  publications  on  this  subject,  suitable 
for  distribution. 

(4)  To  assist  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations 
in  disseminating  information  on  this  subject. 

It  will  not  be  profitable  to  enter  upon  all  of  these  points  at 
first.  The  work  under  the  appropriation  will  need  to  be  of 
gradual  growth,  conducted  at  all  times  economically.  Therefore, 
it  is  not  expected  that  there  will  be  any  considerable  force  of 
clerical  help,  and  aside  from  your  salary,  no  considerable  ex- 
penditure for  the  present.  It  is  understood  that  you  have  at 
your  command  the  data  for  a compilation  of  the  laws  of  several 

14  Ibid. 

15  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  1893,  p.  36. 

18  Bulletin  No.  1,  Office  of  Road  Inquiry,  p.  5. 


138 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


of  the  states,  upon  which  their  road  systems  are  based.  It  should 
be  your  first  duty,  therefore,  to  make  such  collection  complete, 
and  prepare  a bulletin  on  that  subject. 

Incidentally,  while  preparing  this  bulletin,  you  should  charge 
yourself  with  collecting  data  relating  to  the  different  methods  of 
road  making,  which,  in  the  first  instance,  should  be  generic  in 
their  character;  including — 

(1)  The  best  method  of  constructing  a common  highway,  with- 
out gravel  or  stone. 

(2)  Gravel  highways. 

(3)  Macadam  and  other  stone  roads. 

(4)  Data  upon  which  to  base  suggestions  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  material  within  reasonable  access,  for  the  proper  surfac- 
ing of  the  roadbed.  These  data  should  form  the  foundation  for 
the  second  bulletin,  or  second  series  of  bulletins. 

There  are  certain  restrictions  I wish  specifically  to  bring  to 
your  attention.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  actual  expense 
in  the  construction  of  these  highways  is  to  be  borne  by  the 
localities  and  states  in  which  they  lie.  Moreover,  it  is  not  the 
province  of  this  Department  to  seek  to  control  or  influence  said 
action,  except  in  so  far  as  advice  and  wise  suggestion  shall  con- 
tribute toward  it.  This  Department  is  to  form  no  part  of  any 
plan,  scheme,  or  organization,  or  to  be  a party  to  it  in  any  way, 
which  has  for  its  object  the  concerted  effort  to  secure  and  furnish 
labor  to  the  unemployed  persons  or  to  convicts.  These  are 
matters  to  be  carried  on  by  states,  localities,  or  charities.  The 
Department  is  to  furnish  information,  not  to  direct  and  formu- 
late any  system  of  organization,  however  efficient  or  desirable  it 
may  be.  Any  such  effort  on  its  part  would  soon  make  it  subject 
to  hostile  criticism.  You  will  publish  this  letter  in  the  preface 
to  your  first  bulletin. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  Sterling  Morton, 

Secretary. 

Mr.  Roy  Stone, 

Special  Agent  and  Civil  Engineer  in  charge  of 
Good  Roads  Investigations. 

The  Office  followed  these  instructions  pretty  closely  for 
several  years.  General  Stone  and  his  successor  General 
Dodge  encouraged  the  formation  of  good  roads  organiza- 
tions. In  fact  General  Stone  prior  to  the  institution  of  the 
Office  of  Road  Inquiries  was  instrumental  in  organizing  at 
Chicago  in  connection  with  the  dedication  of  the  World’s 
Fair  in  1893,  the  National  League  for  Good  Roads.  Gen- 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


139 


eral  Stone  himself  attributed  to  the  influence  of  this 
League  the  organization  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  and 
the  great  work  which  it  has  since  accomplished.17 

Other  good  roads  organizations  were  springing  up.  The 
Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries  encouraged  these  to  the 
extent  of  publishing  addresses  given  at  their  conventions 
as  bulletins  upon  the  theory  that  the  information  relative 
to  road  improvements  throughout  the  United  States  was 
in  line  with  the  object  and  scope  of  the  Office. 

The  organization  known  as  the  National  Good  Roads 
Association,  with  W.  H.  Moore  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  as 
president,  and  R.  W.  Richardson,  of  Omaha,  Nebraska,  as 
secretary,  seems  to  have  been  especially  active.  Colonel 
Moore  was  a man  of  impressive  manner,  suave  and  affable, 
and  was  able  to  interest  and  associate  with  him  many  very 
influential  people.  He  was  a born  “good  roads  booster.” 
He  always  worked  with  the  men  in  power.  Directors  Stone 
and  Dodge  not  only  had  prominent  places  on  his  conven- 
tion programmes,  but  recommended  to  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  that  the  proceedings  be  printed  as  Depart- 
mental Bulletins.  This  was  for  a time  helpful  to  the  cause 
of  good  roads,  for  the  conventions  were  addressed  by  able 
and  influential  men.  Director  Dodge  in  his  letter  of  trans- 
mittal of  the  proceedings  of  the  convention  held  at  St. 
Louis,  Missouri,  April  27  to  29,  1903,  to  Hon.  James 
Wilson,  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  says  :18 

Among  the  distinguished  speakers  who  delivered  addresses 
were  Hon.  Theodore  Roosevelt,  President  of  the  United  States; 
Hon.  William  J.  Bryan,  of  Nebraska;  General  Miles,  of  the 
United  States  Army;  Governor  Dockery,  of  Missouri;  Governor 
Cummins,  of  Iowa;  Hon.  A.  C.  Latimer,  United  States  Senator 
from  South  Carolina;  Hon.  W.  D.  Vandiver,  member  of  Con- 
gress from  Missouri ; Hon.  D.  R.  Frances,  president  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  Committee;  Hon.  J.  H.  Brigham, 
Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture;  General  Roy  Stone,  of  New 
York;  and  Mr.  Samuel  Hill,  of  Washington.  Addresses  were 
also  delivered  by  prominent  men  engaged  in  agriculture,  railway 
transportation,  commercial  pursuits,  and  newspaper  work. 

17  Bulletin  No.  26,  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries,  p.  46. 

18  Bulletin  No.  26,  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries. 


140 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


This  organization,  like  many  state  good-roads  organiza- 
tions, had  no  permanent  membership  list.  Any  city  that 
would  “finance”  a convention  could  get  one.  Invitations 
were  sent  to  governors,  mayors,  county  officers,  city  officers, 
commercial  clubs  urging  them  to  appoint  delegates  to  the 
conventions.  As  a result  large  conventions  were  pro- 
moted and  held  at  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Buffalo,  Portland, 
and  elsewhere,  usually  in  connection  with  some  exposition 
or  fair. 

There  being  no  permanent  membership  the  only  way  to 
finance  such  undertakings  was  by  popular  subscriptions 
and  donations  from  social,  commercial  and  political  bodies. 
Colonel  Moore19  went  to  New  York  and  talked  to  the 
president  of  the  Illinois  Central  railroad,  Mr.  Stuyvesant 
Fish,  and  asked  for  a special  “train  of  fifteen  cars  to  carry 
modern  road  machinery.”  “How  much  will  this  project 
cost?”  asked  Mr.  Fish.  Moore  replied,  “As  near  as  we 
can  figure  it  out,  to  furnish  and  operate  this  train  for  three 
months  will  cost  you  $40,000  to  $50,000.”  President  Fish 
replied,  ‘ ‘ That  is  a large  amount  to  throw  in  the  mud,  but 
we  will  consider  it.”  The  train  was  granted.  In  the  lan- 
guage of  Colonel  Moore,  the  ‘ ‘ railroad  company  shouldered 
the  burden.”  The  government  through  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads  furnished  two  expert  engineers,  other  engineers  and 
necessary  employees  were  hired.  This  train  made  the  trip 
from  Chicago  to  New  Orleans.  Advance-agents  were  sent 
along  the  way  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  various  com- 
munities. They  were  asked  to  raise  a sufficient  amount  of 
money  to  defray  the  local  expenses.  Moore  states,  “we  did 
not  visit  a single  city  in  the  South  where  we  laid  the  matter 
before  the  mayor,  the  city  council,  and  the  supervisors  that 
they  did  not  promptly  respond  in  the  affirmative.”  Road 
machinery  carried  on  the  train  was  explained  by  men  fre- 
quently sent  along  for  this  purpose  by  the  manufacturers 
who  had  donated  its  use  or  by  engineers  and  others  in 

18  Address  on  the  ‘ ‘ History  and  Purposes  of  the  Good  Roads  Move- 
ment, ” by  William  H.  Moore,  president  National  Good  Roads 
Association,  Bulletin  No.  26,  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries,  p.  10. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


141 


charge.  Short  sections  of  road  were  graded  and  stoned — 
“object  lesson  roads  were  built.”  Similar  trains  were  run 
over  the  Lake  Shore  Road,  and  later  over  the  Southern 
Railway.  The  latter  at  a cost  of  about  $80,000 ; the  road 
equipped  the  train,  fed  the  men  and  furnished  Pullman 
cars  for  sleeping  accommodations.  The  last  such  train  was 
over  the  Northern  Pacific.  This  particular  organization 
(there  were  others)  and  its  work  has  been  thus  fully  men- 
tioned to  show  how  thoroughly  the  propaganda  was  car- 
ried on  which  resulted  later  in  the  greatest  road-building 
campaign  in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  National 
Good  Roads  Association  came  to  grief  at  the  Portland  Ex- 
position in  1905,  where  strenuous  opposition  developed  to 
the  financing  methods  of  Mr.  Moore  and  an  unsuccessful 
effort  was  made  to  oust  him  from  the  presidency  of  the 
association.  James  W.  Abbott,  Pacific  Coast  Agent  for  the 
Office  of  Public  Roads  in  a newspaper  interview  among 
other  things  said  :20 

“We  feel  that  the  wild,  reckless  and  impossible  things 
which  Colonel  Moore  promises  to  do  for  communities  must 
later  produce  a reaction  positively  disastrous.  He  has  al- 
ready promised  that  the  construction  train  of  the  National 
Good  Roads  Association  will  do  an  amount  of  work  gratui- 
tously for  communities,  which,  allowing  for  unavoidable 
delays,  climatic  and  otherwise,  would  take  more  than  ten 
years.  The  three  good  roads  trains  which  have  heretofore 
done  object-lesson  road  work  have  been  under  the  direct 
operation  and  executive  management  of  Colonel  Richard- 
son. They  were  wonderfully  well-equipped  trains,  but 
they  demonstrated  that  the  building  of  suitable  object- 
lesson  roads  efficiently  and  economically  was  not  and  could 
not  be  made  a circus  proposition.” 

In  addition  to  good  roads  associations,  the  agitation  for 
better  roads  was  taken  up  by  governors  who  devoted  a not 
inconsiderable  portion  of  their  messages  to  the  legislatures 
to  a discussion  of  the  subject.  Even  presidents  of  the 
United  States  paid  it  attention  in  their  messages  to  Con- 

20  The  Morning  Oregonian  (Portland),  June  22,  1905. 


142 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


gress.  With  the  coming  of  the  automobile  the  need  of 
better  highways  and  hard  pavements  was  greatly  empha- 
sized. With  lots  of  money  for  propaganda,  with  nearly 
everyone  becoming  a disciple  of  good  roads,  is  it  any  wonder 
that  Congress  finally  voted  for  federal  aid  ? 

Participation  in  road  conventions  and  cooperation  with 
more  or  less  spurious  organizations  was  greatly  curtailed 
when  Logan  Walter  Page  was  promoted  to  the  Directorship 
of  the  office.  Still,  speakers  and  experts  were  freely  sent 
to  address  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the 
citizenry  to  the  need  of  better  roads,  and  how  they  should 
go  about  to  obtain  them  and  what  such  roads  will  cost. 
Speakers  were,  therefore,  supposed  to  give  definite  and 
specific  information  on  which  local  committees  might  act 
intelligently.  Propaganda  for  the  purpose  of  influencing 
legislation  in  any  state  or  city  was  tabooed  and  bulletins 
took  on  a more  scientific  nature  relating  more  to  quality, 
availability,  and  cost  of  materials ; methods  and  costs  of 
construction ; and  efficiency  of  types  of  roads. 

Road  associations  have  continued  to  increase  and  many 
have  and  are  doing  praiseworthy  work  for  the  cause  of 
better  roads.  The  Good  Roads  Year  Book,  1914,  published 
by  the  American  Highway  Association,  of  which  Director 
Page  was  president,  listed,  giving  the  names  of  the  prin- 
cipal officers,  1 international,  38  national  and  617  state  and 
county  associations. 

Object-Lesson  Roads. — The  Office  of  Public  Roads  in- 
quiry beginning,  as  has  been  shown,  very  simply,  has  by 
devoted  service  and  extreme  economy  been  able  to  do  a 
remarkable  amount  of  good  for  the  public  highways  of  this 
country.  The  men  at  its  head  and  employed  by  it  deserve 
much  praise.  Their  salaries  were  small,  yet  they  worked 
with  missionary  zeal.  They  were  able  to  cooperate  with 
scientific  and  professional  organizations,  such  as  the 
American  Society  for  Testing  Materials,  The  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  The  Bureau  of  Standards,  and 
a number  of  organizations  employing  reputable  high-class 
scientific  men  in  research  work  pertaining  to  road  con- 


MANAGEMENT  AND  ECONOMICS  GENERAL  INSPECTION  ENGINEERING 

Chief  of  M anagement  General  Inspectors  Chief  Engineer 


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1st.  District  2nd  District  3rd.  District  4th.District  5th.  District  6th. District  7th. District  8th.District  9th.  District  10th. District 

Berkely.Col.  Denver,  Colo.  So  Chicago, III.  Tenn.  Me.,  N.H.,VtnN.Y.  Washington,D.C. 

Wash.  Cal.,  Nev.  Mont,Wyo.  N.D.,  S.D  Nebr.,  Iowa  Texas., Okla.  Mich,,  III.  Miss.,  Ala  Mass., Conn., R.l.  Ohio., Penn., Md. 

Ore.,  Idaho  Ariz.,N.  M.  Utah  , Colo.  Minn.,  Wis.  Kan.,  Mo.  Ark.,  La.  Ind.,  Ky.  &a.,S.C.,  Fla.  N.  J.,  Del.  W.Va.,Va.,  N-C. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


143 


struction  and  road  materials.  The  government’s  appro- 
priation beginning  at  $10,000  or  excluding  the  Director’s 
salary  $8000,  was  increased  from  time  to  time  until  it  was 
in  1896,  $37,660  and  in  1911,  $135,000.  Since  the  adoption 
of  the  system  of  Federal  Aid,  there  has  naturally  been 
greatly  increased  operation.  The  total  appropriations  for 
the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  are  now  approximately  three 
quarters  of  a million  dollars. 

The  duties  and  scope  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  In- 
quiry was  gradually  widened  and  its  name  changed  to  the 
Office  of  Public  Roads.  In  1915  by  reorganization  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  it  became  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads  and  Rural  Engineering  and  took  charge  of  all  the 
Department’s  work  which  partook  in  any  way  of  an 
engineering  nature.  In  1916  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
directed  the  Office  to  act  for  him  in  the  routine  administra- 
tion of  the  Federal  Roads  Act.  The  work  of  the  Office  or 
Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  as  it  is  now  designated,  was  in 
1916,  carried  on  along  three  general  lines:21  (1)  Educa- 
tional; (2)  Research,  and  (3)  Administration  of  the 
Federal  Road  Act.  By  its  educational  or  extension  work 
the  Office  was  endeavoring  to  reach  the  people  by  means 
of  lectures,  addresses,  the  publication  of  bulletins  and  the 
exhibit  of  models.  Emphasizing  the  economic  value  of 
improved  roads  and  the  efficiency  of  various  types.  Special 
advice  and  assistance  to  communities  was  given  by  furnish- 
ing engineers  and  experts  to  confer  with  municipal  officers 
on  their  particular  problems.  Actual  demonstration  by  the 
construction  of  object-lesson  roads  was  freely  carried  on. 
The  community  furnished  the  material  and  labor ; the 
Office  sent  its  engineers  and  experts  to  design  and  super- 
intend the  construction.  These  “seed  miles”  resulted  in 
the  construction  of  many  other  miles  by  the  community 
itself.  The  Office  tried  to  impress  also  the  need  of  proper 
maintenance  from  the  beginning. 

Fully  as  important  as  its  educational  work  was  the  re- 
search or  investigational  work  carried  on.  The  Office  was 

n“ Goods  Koads  Year  Book,”  1917,  p.  29. 


144 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


able  to  secure  the  services  of  several  young  men  of  scientific 
attainment  and  the  bulletins  put  out  by  L.  W.  Page, 
Prevost  Hubbard,  A.  S.  Cushman  and  their  successors 
have  commanded  world-wide  recognition.  Laboratories 
were  erected  to  test  road  materials,  and  experimental  roads 
were  built  to  demonstrate  the  actual  use  of  the  same  accord- 
ing to  various  methods.  In  this  manner  careful  studies 
were  made  of  a vast  number  of  materials,  including  oils, 
asphalts,  tars,  concrete,  brick,  crushed  stone  and  gravel. 
In  connection  with  practical  road  men  and  research  com- 
mittees of  such  organizations  as  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  and  the  American  Society  for  Testing 
Materials  many  useful  standards  have  been  adopted  for 
road  materials  and  road  construction.  The  effect  of  traffic 
on  various  types  of  roads  has  also  been  a profitable  subject 
for  study.  The  organization  of  the  Bureau  may  be  best 
shown  by  the  chart. 

Rural  Free  Delivery. — A brief  mention  of  this  agency 
for  better  roads  should  not  be  omitted.  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral Wanamaker,  in  1890,  recommended  the  extension  of 
free  delivery  to  villages  of  less  than  10,000  population  and 
he  inaugurated  an  experimental  “village  delivery.”  After 
an  existence  of  about  two  years  this  was  ordered  discon- 
tinued. However,  free  delivery  on  a broader  basis  was 
demanded  by  State  Granges  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry 
and  other  farmers.  Congress  made  small  appropriations 
for  rural  free  delivery,  but  the  Postmaster-General,  W.  S. 
Bissell,  declined  to  make  any  use  of  them.  When  Hon.  W. 
L.  Wilson  became  Postmaster-General  (1895)  he  agreed 
with  his  predecessor  in  believing  the  project  impractical, 
but  if  Congress  would  make  the  money  available  he  was 
willing  to  try  it  out.  An  appropriation  of  $40,000  was 
placed  at  his  disposal.22 

The  first  Rural  Free  Delivery  routes  were  established  on 
October  1,  1896,  at  Halltown,  Uvilla,  and  Charlestown, 
West  Virginia.  Others  immediately  followed.  President 

22 ‘ ‘ The  Delivery  of  Rural  Mails,  ’ ’ by  Charles  H.  Greathouse, 
Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book,  1890. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


145 


McKinley  in  a message  to  Congress  December  3, 1900,  states 
that  “by  the  close  of  the  current  fiscal  year  about  4000 
routes  will  have  been  established,  providing  for  the  daily 
delivery  of  mails  at  the  scattered  homes  of  about  three  and 
a half  million  of  rural  population.”23  So  successful  did 
it  prove  that  it  soon  displaced  nearly  all  the  star  routes  and 
was  well  established  in  practically  all  rural  districts  of  the 
United  States.  In  1919  out  of  a total  expenditure  by  the 
Post  Office  Department  of  over  $362,000,000,  a little  less 
than  $51,000,000  was  distributed  to  the  rural  delivery 
service.24 

The  Department  having  adopted  a rule  to  the  effect  that 
the  rural  delivery  service  would  only  be  established  along 
reasonably  good  roads,  and  that  a carrier  need  not  go  out 
unless  the  roads  were  in  fit  condition  spurred  the  in- 
habitants up  to  better  attention  of  the  roads  for  after  a 
man  once  got  in  the  habit  of  receiving  his  mail  daily  he 
wanted  it  regularly. 

“When  a heavy  snow  blocks  the  way  of  the  rural  carrier 
it  is  customary  for  the  farmers  to  turn  out  and  break  the 
roads,  and  this  is  done  several  days  earlier  than  would  be 
the  case  ordinarily.  In  this  way  communication  through- 
out neighborhoods  and  with  the  outside  world  is  opened  up 
promptly.  In  consequence  the  farmer  is  able  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  good  markets  and  the  townspeople  are  not  cut 
off  from  the  supply  of  fresh  country  produce,  as  often  has 
happened  in  severe  storms.  Also  eases  of  distress  in 
isolated  farm  homes  are  sooner  reached  and  relieved.”25 

The  Department  finding  the  rural  delivery  popular  de- 
termined to  make  it  not  only  more  so  but  to  make  it  pay 
also.  So  they  took  precautions  to  protect  the  mail  in  the 
farmer’s  boxes  by  regulating  the  kind  of  boxes  to  be  used 
and  promptly  prosecuting  cases  of  thievery  and  molesta- 
tion of  mail;  they  established  registration  by  rural  car- 
riers and  allowed  carriers  to  receipt  for  applications  for 

“Cong.  Kecord,  Dec.  3,  1900,  p.  12. 

““The  American  Year  Book,”  1919,  p.  556. 

“ Dept,  of  Agri.  Year  Book,  1900,  p.  522. 


146 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


money  orders ; carriers  were  also  authorized  to  receive  and 
deliver  “drop”  letters  on  their  routes  without  passing 
them  through  the  terminal  post  office.  A little  later  when 
the  parcel  post  was  instituted  the  popularity  of  rural  de- 
livery was  greatly  enhanced.  Like  many  other  conven- 
iences the  rural  inhabitants  cannot  now  realize  how  they 
could  get  along  without  free  delivery  of  the  mails.  Post- 
master-General Charles  Emory  Smith  in  his  report  of 
190  028  says  of  the  then  quite  new  system: 

Rural  delivery  has  now  been  sufficiently  tried  to  measure  its 
effects.  ...  It  stimulates  social  and  business  correspondence, 
and  so  swells  the  postal  receipts.  Its  introduction  is  invariably 
followed  by  a large  increase  in  the  circulation  of  the  press  and  of 
periodic  literature.  The  farm  is  thus  brought  into  direct  daily 
contact  with  the  currents  and  movements  of  the  business  world. 
A more  accurate  knowledge  of  ruling  markets  and  varying  prices 
is  diffused,  and  the  producer,  with  his  quicker  communication  and 
larger  information,  is  placed  on  a surer  footing.  The  value  of 
farms,  as  has  been  shown  in  many  cases,  is  enhanced.  Good 
roads  become  indispensable,  and  their  improvement  is  the 
essential  condition  of  the  service.  The  material  and  measurable 
benefits  are  signal  and  unmistakable. 

But  the  movement  exercises  a wider  and  deeper  influence.  It 
becomes  a factor  in  the  social  and  economic  tendencies  of 
American  life.  The  disposition  to  leave  the  farm  for  the  town 
is  a familiar  effect  of  our  past  conditions.  But  this  tendency  is 
checked,  and  may  be  materially  changed  by  an  advance  which 
conveys  many  of  the  advantages  of  the  town  to  the  farm.  Rural 
free  delivery  brings  the  farm  within  the  daily  range  of  the  in- 
tellectual and  commercial  activities  of  the  world,  and  the  isola- 
tion and  monotony  which  have  been  the  bane  of  agricultural 
life  are  sensibly  mitigated.  It  proves  to  be  one  of  the  most 
effective  and  powerful  of  educational  agencies.  Wherever  it  is 
extended  the  schools  improve  and  the  civil  spirit  of  the  com- 
munity feels  a new  pulsation;  the  standard  of  intelligence  is 
raised,  enlightened  interest  in  public  affairs  is  quickened,  and 
better  citizenship  follows. 

With  all  these  results  clearly  indicated  by  the  experiment  as 
thus  far  tried,  rural  free  delivery  is  plainly  here  to  stay.  It 
cannot  be  abandoned  where  it  has  been  established,  and  cannot 
be  maintained  without  being  extended. 

M Year  Book,  1900.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 


HARD  SURFACE  HIGHWAY  IN  OREGON 


A FARMER’S  WIFE  MEETING  THE  POSTAL  TRUCK 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


147 


The  law  for  federal  aid  is  based  upon  the  clause  in  the 
Constitution  giving  Congress  power  “to  establish  post 
offices  and  post  roads.”27  and  the  money  made  available 
may  only  be  expended  on  post  roads  outside  of  towns 
“having  a population  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  or 
more,  except  that  portion  of  any  such  street  or  road  along 
which  the  houses  average  more  than  two  hundred  feet 
apart.  ’ ’28  Thus  may  be  seen  the  very  great  importance  to 
better  public  highways  of  the  ‘ ‘ rural  free  delivery.  ’ ’ 

State  Aid. — While  the  bicyclist  and  voluntary  road 
organizations  were  creating  sentiment  favorable  to  im- 
proved highways,  the  states  were  not  idle.  It  will  not  be 
possible  to  follow  the  progress  in  each  of  the  states,  but 
since  some  form  of  state  aid  has  been  adopted  by  all  of 
them  the  development  of  that  idea  will  be  sketched.  By 
state  aid  is  meant  a plan  whereby  a part  of  the  expense  of 
constructing  roads  is  borne  by  the  state  and  a part  by  the 
locality  in  which  the  road  lies. 

New  Jersey,29  like  many  of  the  other  Eastern  states, 
had  a few  turnpike  roads  constructed  and  maintained  by 
private  corporations.  These  roads  were  much  better  than 
the  public  roads  on  which  there  were  no  toll  gates.  The 
public  roads  were  administered  under  ordinary  laws  of 
overseers  of  highway  districts.  Charges  of  partiality  had 
led  to  amendments,  then  other  amendments  until  the  laws 
were  a maze  of  intricacies.  To  eliminate  these,  the  state 
board  of  agriculture  in  1887  called  a mass  meeting  of 
farmers  and  others  interested  in  good  roads.  The  result 
of  the  conference,  which  was  well  attended,  was  the  ap- 
pointment of  a committee,  consisting  of  one  member  for 
each  of  the  Congressional  districts  in  the  State,  to  examine 
the  laws  of  New  Jersey,  of  other  states  and  of  foreign 
countries  and  report  methods  for  bettering  the  New  Jersey 
system.  After  careful  consideration  they  drafted  a law 

”“The  Constitution,  of  the  United  States,  Section  8. 

28  Public  Law  No.  156,  64th  Congress. 

29  ‘ ‘ State  Aid  to  Road  Building  in  New  Jersey,  ’ ’ by  Edward 
Burrough,  Chairman  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 
Office  of  Road  Inquiry  Bulletin  No.  9,  1894. 


148 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


abolishing  the  overseers  and  conferring  the  powers  and 
duties  of  caring  for  the  public  highways  on  the  township 
committee.  This  was  presented  to  the  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  and  received  unanimous  approval.  But  when 
it  came  before  the  State  Legislature,  of  1888,  for  adoption 
the  opposition  of  the  road  overseers  succeeded  in  defeating 
it.  In  1889  it  was  again  presented  and  defeated ; and  met 
a similar  fate  in  1890.  But  in  1891  with  the  cooperation 
of  the  governor  its  passage  was  secured. 

Mr.  Clayton  Conrow  of  New  Jersey30  claims  the  honor 
of  proposing  the  first  state  aid  road  law  in  the  United 
States.  He  asserts  that  he  learned  from  actual  observation 
of  the  travelers  on  a section  of  highway  that  it  was  used 
not  only  by  “teams  of  the  local  township  but  also  from 
the  adjoining  township  and  the  township  beyond,  and  so 
on  and  on  they  came  until  a score  of  townships  were  rep- 
resented on  this  section  of  the  road.”  He  therefore  con- 
cluded that  the  county  and  the  state  by  rights  should 
assist  in  building  the  main  traveled  roads,  and  that  ‘ ‘ every 
citizen  of  the  state  is  entitled  to  the  free  use  thereof.” 
This,  he  says,  was  in  1890,  just  the  time  the  state  board  of 
agriculture  was  pushing  its  law  to  discontinue  the  over- 
seers. Conrow  says  he  feonsulted  with  Hon.  Edward  Bur- 
rough,  president  of  the  state  board  of  agriculture,  and 
outlined  his  plan  for  a State  Aid  Road  Law.  Burrough 
was  highly  pleased,  but  there  was  an  obstacle  in  the  way, 
namely  the  turnpike  corporations.  They  were  creatures 
of  the  law  and  had  rights  that  should  be  respected.  Mr. 
Burrough  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  law  having  faith 
that  the  people  would  buy  the  turnpike  roads  so  that  no 
citizen  would  be  the  loser.  Judge  William  M.  Lanning 
put  the  draft  of  the  bill  in  legal  form.  It  was  then  sub- 
mitted to  Governor  Abbett  for  his  approval  as  they  did  not 
care  to  encounter  a veto  if  a slight  change  of  form  would 

*°  ‘ ‘ Inside  History  of  the  State  Aid  Eoad  Law,  ’ ’ by  Clayton  Con- 
row, President  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Eoad  Improvement  Associa- 
tion, Eeport  of  the  New  Jersey  Commissioner  of  Poblic  Eoads, 
1900,  p.  81. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


149 


reconcile  him  to  its  provisions.  Mr.  Conrow  claims  his 
original  draft  was  changed  only  slightly  by  the  board  and 
again  by  the  governor,  then  submitted  to  the  legislature  by 
a Mr.  Davidson  of  Gloucester  county.  This  is  the  act  that 
was  passed  in  1891. 

Salient  Features  of  the  State  Aid  Law. — The  essential 
points  of  the  law  are  set  forth  in  the  following  extract 
being  the  preamble  and  parts  of  the  seventh  and  fourth 
sections : 

An  Act  to  provide  for  the  more  permanent  improvement  of  the 
public  roads  of  this  State- 

Whereas  public  roads  in  this  State  have  heretofore  been  built 
and  maintained  solely  at  the  expense  of  the  respective  townships 
in  which  they  are  located;  and 

Whereas  such  roads  are  for  the  convenience  of  the  citizens  of 
the  counties  in  which  they  are  located,  and  of  the  entire  State 
as  well  as  of  said  townships;  and 

Whereas  the  expense  of  constructing  permanently  improved 
roads  may  be  reasonably  imposed  in  due  proportions,  upon  the 
State  and  upon  the  counties  in  which  they  are  located: 
Therefore,  . . . 

And  be  it  enacted,  That  whenever  there  shall  be  presented  to 
the  board  of  chosen  freeholders  of  any  county  a petition  signed 
by  the  owners  of  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  lands  and  real  estate 
fronting  or  bordering  on  any  public  road  . . . praying  the 
board  to  cause  such  road  ...  to  be  improved  under  this  act,  and 
setting  forth  that  they  are  willing  that  the  peculiar  benefits  con- 
ferred on  the  lands  fronting  or  bordering  on  said  road  . . . 
shall  be  assessed  thereon,  in  amount  not  exceeding  ten  per 
centum  of  the  entire  cost  of  the  improvement,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  board  to  cause  such  improvements  to  be  made : 
Provided,  that  the  estimated  cost  of  all  improvements  ...  in 
any  county  in  any  one  year  shall  not  exceed  one-half  of  one  per 
centum  of  the  ratables  of  such  county  for  the  last  preceding 
year.  . . . 

And  be  it  enacted,  That  one-third  of  the  cost  of  all  roads  con- 
structed . . . shall  be  paid  for  out  of  the  State  treasury: 
Provided,  That  the  amount  so  paid  shall  not  in  any  one  year  ex- 
ceed the  sum  of  seventy-five  thousand  dollars.  . . . 

It  will  be  seen  that  under  this  law  the  property  owners 
pay  one-tenth,  the  State  one-third  and  the  county  the  re- 
maining 562/3  per  cent.  Except  for  the  10  per  cent  paid 


150 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


by  the  abutting  property  holders  the  burden  borne  by  all 
citizens  of  the  county  is  the  same. 

The  friends  of  the  movement  demanded  its  enforce- 
ment; the  opponents  were  equally  determined  which  re- 
sulted in  an  appeal  to  the  courts  and  the  mandatory  fea- 
tures were  sustained.  As  it  was  first  enacted  the  total  ex- 
penditure was  $20,000  and  a Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
was  to  supervise  its  disbursement.  But  as  there  was  no 
such  officer  the  next  legislature,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
governor,  authorized  the  president  of  the  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  to  perform  these  duties;  this  he  did  until  the 
office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Roads  was  created. 
The  first  money  paid  out  under  the  act  was  December  27, 
1892,  $20,661.85,  and  this  was  the  first  money  paid  in  the 
United  States  for  state  aid  for  the  construction  of  roads. 
With  slight  amendments  the  law  remains  to  the  present  and 
has  been  emulated  by  nearly  all  the  states  in  the  Union. 

In  Massachusetts  advocates  of  better  roads  attempted 
legislation  looking  toward  a system  of  state  highways  in 
1887  and  annually  thereafter  until  1892.31  In  1892  the  de- 
mand became  so  great  that  the  legislature  enacted  a law 
providing  for  a commission  of  three  to  inquire  into  the 
entire  subject  and  report  to  the  legislature  of  1893,  with 
suitable  appropriation  for  the  purpose.  The  commission 
made  a thorough  investigation,  held  public  hearings,  and 
made  inquiries  among  all  classes.  Their  findings  were 
brought  before  the  legislature  and  a general  road  law  was 
enacted  providing  for  a commission  of  three  competent 
persons  who  should  give  advice  to  those  having  charge  of 
the  public  highways ; it  further  contemplated  the  building 
and  care  for  by  this  commission  of  a system  of  state  high- 
ways connecting  the  several  municipalities.  At  first  the 
counties  were  supposed  to  grade  the  roads  and  the  Com- 
monwealth to  surface  them  but  the  law  was  changed  (1894) 
so  that  the  Commonwealth  through  the  highway  eom- 

51  ‘ ‘ State  Highways  in  Massachusetts,  ’ ’ by  George  A.  Perkins, 
Chairman  Massachusetts  State  Highway  Commission,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  Year  Book,  1894,  p.  505. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


151 


mission  does  the  entire  work  of  construction  and  mainte- 
nance then  charges  back  to  the  counties  25  per  cent  of  the 
cost,  so  that  finally  the  State  pays  75  per  cent  and  the 
county  25  per  cent.  In  1913  an  amendment  was  made  to 
relieve  small  communities  from  the  payment  of  the  entire 
amount  thus  the  State,  in  reality,  pays  more  than  75  per 
cent  of  the  expense. 

The  state  aid  principle  has  been  adopted  by  all  states 
in  the  union ; many  before  federal  aid  came,  the  remainder 
since.  Connecticut  was  third  in  1895  and  New  York  fourth 
in  1898. 

In  order  to  raise  money  to  meet  the  demands  for  state 
aid  roads  many  of  the  states  bonded  themselves  for  large 
amounts.  New  York  voted  a bond  issue  of  $50,000,000  in 
1906  and  another  of  the  same  amount  in  1912.  California 
voted  bonds  of  $18,000,000  in  1910  and  $15,000,000  in 
1916.  Illinois  voted  $60,000,000  in  1920  eventually  to  be 
paid  from  automobile  licenses.  Maryland  authorized  a 
bond  issue  of  $5,000,000  for  trunkline  roads;  additional 
issues  were  made  in  1910,  $1,000,000 ; in  1912,  $3,170,000 ; 
in  1914,  $6,600,000;  and  in  1916,  $2,700,000.  Missouri 
authorized  a $60,000,000  bond  issue  in  1921  and  so  on  for 
other  states.  On  January  1,  191432  there  were  outstanding 
highway  and  bridge  bonds  in  the  United  States  to  the 
amount  of  $445,147,073 ; of  which  $158,590,000  had  been 
voted  by  the  States  and  $286,557,073  by  counties  and  town- 
ships. After  the  war  increased  interest  in  road  building 
became  manifest.  Between  November  1,  1918,  and  Decem- 
ber 31,  1919, 33  state  highway  bonds  amounting  to  $234,000,- 
000  were  voted : Illinois,  $60,000,000 ; Pennsylvania  $50,- 
000,000 ; Michigan,  $50,000,000 ; Missouri,  $60,000,000  and 
many  other  states  smaller  amounts.  There  is  pending  legis- 
lation for  nearly  $300,000,000  additional  bonds,  among 
which  are  Minnesota,  $75,000,000;  Texas,  $75,000,000; 
West  Virginia,  $40,000,000;  Washington,  $30,000,000; 
Alabama,  $25,000,000.  Funds  are  otherwise  raised  by 

32  Office  of  Public  Roads  Bulletin  No.  136. 

33  ‘ 1 The  American  Year  Book,  ’ ’ D.  Appleton  Co.,  New  York, 
1919,  1920. 


152 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


direct  taxation,  property  and  special,  by  appropriations 
from  the  general  fund,  by  automobile  licenses,  and  from 
court  fines.  The  grand  total  for  road  construction  ex- 
pended in  the  United  States  from  1910  to  1920  is  over 
$2,500,000,000. 

Federal  Aid. — The  real  road  building  age  in  the  United 
States  was  ushered  in  by  the  enactment  of  the  law  pro- 
viding that  “the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  on  behalf 
of  the  United  States  in  certain  cases  aid  the  States  in  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  rural  post  roads.  ’ ’ From 
the  time  Representative  Brownlow  startled  the  country  in 
1904  by  introducing  a bill  to  appropriate  $24,000,000  for 
road  building,  not  a session  of  Congress  passed  without 
several  such  bills  being  introduced.  Most  of  these  took  the 
form  of  creating  a commission  to  administer  any  fund  for 
national  aid  that  might  be  appropriated,  and  many  feared 
such  large  appropriations  would  result  in  “pork  barrels’’ 
all  over  the  country.  In  1915  one  such  bill  passed  the 
House  but  did  not  become  a law.  However,  the  leaven  con- 
tinued to  work.  The  influence  of  the  automobile  was  mak- 
ing thousands  of  new  road  enthusiasts  every  day.  Many 
petitions  were  being  rained  upon  Congress  and  scores  of 
bills  introduced  for  national  aid  both  for  specific  roads  and 
of  a general  nature.  During  the  63d  Congress,  forty-nine 
bills  were  introduced,  10  in  the  Senate  and  39  in  the  House. 
A report  had  been  submitted  by  a joint  congressional  com- 
mittee on  January  21,  191  5 34  embodying  data  from  for- 
eign countries  showing  systems  in  effect,  the  mileage  and 
cost  of  roads  constructed;  similar  data  from  the  several 
states ; extracts  from  state  constitutions  showing  limitations 
of  state  debts;  statistics  on  tonnage  transported  over  rural 
roads ; statistics  on  length,  character  and  condition  of  rural 
routes;  transportation  rates  on  road  materials  by  rail; 
comparative  statistics  embodying  possible  factors  in  ap- 
portionment of  Federal  aid ; statistics  of  wealth,  debt,  and 
highway  expenditures;  comparative  statistics  on  the  cost 

M House  Document  No.  1510,  “Federal  Aid  to  Good  Roads,”  being 
Yol.  99,  of  the  House  Documents. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


153 


of  road  construction,  historical  sketches  of  national  roads, 
work  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads ; and  a synopsis  on  con- 
gressional action  on  Federal  aid  to  road  improvement. 

The  report  speaks  of  the  economic  importance  of  good 
roads,  the  constitutionality  of  Federal  aid  and  gives  data 
to  show  the  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  Federal  aid.  Of 
10,000  replies  to  inquiries  received  from  every  state  in  the 
Union,  97  per  cent  favored  Federal  aid  and  3 per  cent 
opposed. 

On  January  6,  1916,  Representative  Shackleford  of 
Missouri,  chairman  of  the  committee  on  roads,  introduced 
the  bill  which  later  became  a law.  The  bill  ran  the  usual 
course  and  created  a great  deal  of  interest  and  was  freely 
debated  in  both  House  and  Senate.  The  discussion  on  it 
comprises  more  than  300  pages  of  the  Congressional 
Record35  and  cover  practically  every  reason  for  and  ob- 
jection to  the  betterment  of  highways  and  the  use  thereon 
of  national  money.  The  bill  finally  passed  the  house 
January  25,  1916,  by  a vote  of  283  Yeas,  81  Nays  and  70 
not  voting ; and  the  Senate  as  amended,  May  8,  1916,  by  a 
unanimous  vote.  The  bill  went  to  conference,  the  Senate 
agreed  to  the  conference  report  June  27,  and  the  House 
June  28,  1916.  President  Wilson  approved  the  bill  July 
11,  1916,  and  it  became  Public  Law,  No.  156,  64th  Congress. 

The  title  of  the  bill  as  amended  is  “An  Act  to  provide 
that  the  United  States  shall  aid  the  States  in  the  Con- 
struction of  rural  post  roads,  and  for  other  purposes.”  In 
brief  it  authorizes  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to 
cooperate  with  the  states  through  their  respective  highway 
departments  in  the  construction  of  rural  post  roads.  In 
order  to  keep  state  sovereignty  intact  no  money  apportioned 
under  the  act  could  be  expended  in  any  state  until  the 
legislature  of  that  state  shall  have  assented  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Act.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the 
State  Highway  department  agree  upon  the  roads  to  be 
constructed  therein  and  the  character  and  method  of  con- 
struction. By  providing  that  all  roads  constructed  under 

” Vol.  LIII,  1916.  See  page  references  at  end  of  chapter. 


154 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


the  provisions  of  the  act  shall  be  free  from  tolls  of  all 
kinds  Congress  avoided  the  objection  raised  by  President 
Monroe  in  his  veto  of  the  National  Road  bill  in  1822.  A 
most  liberal  definition  of  Post  Roads  is  also  given  in  the 
bill,  namely,  “the  term  ‘rural  post  road’  shall  be  con- 
strued to  mean  any  public  road  over  which  the  United 
States  mails  now  are  or  may  hereafter  be  transported,  ex- 
cluding every  street  and  road  in  a place  having  a popula- 
tion, as  shown  by  the  latest  available  federal  census,  of 
two  thousand  five  hundred  or  more,  except  that  portion  of 
any  such  street  or  road  along  which  the  houses  average 
more  than  two  hundred  feet  apart.  ’ ’ 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the 
act  there  was  appropriated  for  the  fiscal  years  ending  June 
30,  1917,  the  sum  of  $5,000,000;  1918,  $10,000,000;  1919, 
$15,000,000;  1920,  $20,000,000;  1921,  $25,000,000.  After 
deducting  the  amount  necessary  for  administration  not  ex- 
ceeding 3 per  cent,  the  remaining  amount  available  was  to 
be  distributed  as  follows:  “One-third  in  the  ratio  which 
the  area  of  each  State  bears  to  the  total  area  of  all  the 
States ; one-third  in  the  ratio  which  the  population  of  each 
State  bears  to  the  total  population  of  all  the  States  as 
shown  by  the  latest  available  Federal  census ; one-third  in 
the  ratio  which  the  mileage  of  rural  delivery  routes  and 
star  routes  in  each  State  bears  to  the  total  mileage  of  rural 
delivery  routes  and  star  routes  in  all  the  states.”  The 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  to  approve  only  projects  which 
are  substantial  in  character.  Items  of  engineering,  in- 
spection and  unforeseen  contingencies  may  not  exceed  10 
per  cent  of  the  estimated  cost.  The  share  paid  by  the 
Government  shall  not  exceed  50  per  cent  of  the  total  cost. 

The  same  act  appropriated  $10,000,000  for  the  survey, 
construction  and  maintenance  of  roads  and  trails  within 
the  national  forests  when  necessary  to  develop  the  resources 
upon  which  communities  within  and  adjacent  to  the 
national  forests  are  dependent. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  issued  September  1,  1916, 
a set  of  rules  and  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  Federal- 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


155 


Aid  Road  Act.36  These  are  quite  detailed  and  require  a 
close  supervision  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural 
Engineering,  the  Director  of  which  or  other  officers  and 
employees  designated  by  him,  was  officially  appointed  to 
represent  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  its  administra- 
tion. These  rules  explain  and  relate  specifically  to  defini- 
tions of  terms ; information  to  be  furnished  the  Secretary ; 
project  statements;  surveys,  plans,  specifications  and 
estimates;  project  agreements;  contracts;  construction 
work  and  labor ; records  and  cost  keeping ; payments ; sub- 
mission of  documents  to  the  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

A State,  County  or  District  making  application  for  aid 
must  present  a Project  Statement  “to  enable  the  Secretary 
to  ascertain  (a)  whether  the  project  conforms  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  act;  (6)  whether  adequate  funds,  or 
their  equivalent,  are  or  will  be  available  by  or  on  behalf 
of  the  State  for  construction;  (c)  what  purpose  the  project 
will  serve  and  how  it  correlates  with  other  highway  work 
of  the  State;  ( d ) the  administrative  control  of,  and  re- 
sponsibility for,  the  project;  (e)  the  practicability  and 
economy  of  the  project  from  an  engineering  and  construc- 
tion standpoint;  (/)  the  adequacy  of  the  plans  and  pro- 
visions for  proper  maintenance  of  roads;  and  ( g ) the  ap- 
proximate amount  of  Federal  aid  desired.”  Also  there 
must  be  submitted  for  approval  forms  of  contract,  with 
documents  referred  to  in  them,  and  the  contractor’s  bond. 
Likewise  maps  of  surveys,  plans,  specifications  and 
estimates,  showing  quantity  and  cost  shall  have  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Secretary.  The  state  shall  provide  the 
rights  of  way  and  railroad  grade  crossings  shall  be  avoided 
where  practicable.  A project  agreement  between  the  State 
Highway  Department  and  the  Secretary  is  executed.  It 
must  also  be  shown  that  adequate  means  either  by  adver- 
tising or  other  devices  were  employed,  prior  to  the  begin- 
ning of  construction,  to  insure  economical  and  practical 
expenditures,  and  rules  for  submitting  and  tabulating  bids 

M Circular  No.  65,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Public 
Roads. 


156 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


are  given.  Samples  of  the  materials  to  be  used  must  be 
submitted  for  approval  whenever  requested,  and  all  ma- 
terials, unless  otherwise  stipulated,  must  be  tested  prior 
to  use  by  the  standard  methods  of  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads.  Supervision  shall  include  adequate  inspection. 
Reports  of  progress,  records  and  cost  accounts  must  be  kept 
in  approved  manner. 

Many  states  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  Federal 
aid  within  the  time  stipulated  by  the  Act  have,  as  has  been 
shown,  issued  long-time  bonds.  Others  have  relied  on  in- 
creased taxation,  and  many  require  abutting  property  to 
pay  a special  tax  for  improvements. 

The  success  of  the  Act  was  extremely  marked.  So  much 
so  that  the  Post  Office  Appropriation  act  of  February  28, 
1919, 37  carried  an  amendment  to  the  original  Federal  Aid 
Act  providing  an  additional  appropriation  of  $200,000,000 
for  post  roads  and  $9,000,000  for  forest  roads.  Fifty 
million  dollars  of  the  post  road  fund  was  made  immediately 
available  and  $75,000,000  was  made  available  for  each  of 
the  fiscal  years  of  1920  and  1921.  Of  the  forest  road  fund 
$3,000,000  was  made  available  for  each  of  the  fiscal  years 
1919,  1920  and  1921.  This  bill  transferred  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture  all  available  war  material  and  equip- 
ment suitable  for  use  in  the  improvement  of  highways  for 
distribution  to  the  several  states  on  a value  basis  the  same 
as  provided  in  the  Federal  Aid  Act  of  1916.  Under  this 
provision  trucks,  road  equipment,  and  road  materials  hav- 
ing when  new  a value  of  over  $100,000,000  had  been  dis- 
tributed by  November  1,  1919. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Anderson,  Andrew  P.,  “Highways,”  American  Year  Book,  1918, 
pp.  317-321;  1919,  pp.  308-311.  D.  Appleton  & Company, 
New  York. 

“Bonds  for  Highway  Improvement,”  Office  of  Public  Roads 
Bulletin  No.  136,  U.  S.  Dept  of  Agr. 

m American  Year  Book,  1920,  p.  308.  D.  Appleton  & Company,  New 
York. 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


157 


Boston  Transcript,  Letter  by  a foreign  visitor  giving  her  opinion 
of  American  Roads.  Aug.  10,  1892. 

Burrough,  Edward,  “State  Aid  to  Road  Building  in  New 
Jersey,”  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiry  Bulletin  No.  9, 
1894.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 

Chatburn,  George  R.,  “Highway  Engineering,”  pp.  125-126, 
John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Congressional  Record. — Good  Roads  Resolution  introduced  in 
the  Senate  by  Senator  Manderson,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp.  157, 
261,  300.  Introduced  in  the  House  by  Representative 
Lewis,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  883. 

Conrow,  Clayton,  “Inside  History  of  the  State  Aid  Law,” 
Report  of  the  New  Jersey  Commissioner  of  Public  Roads, 
1900,  p.  81. 

Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book,  1900,  p.  522. 

Federal  Aid  Road  Law,  History  of,  Congressional  Record,  Vol. 
LIII,  1916.  The  Federal  Aid  road  bill,  the  one  that  was  finally 
passed  and  became  the  most  effective  road  law  the  world  has 
ever  known,  had  a history  in  Congress  that  would  make  a 
large  volume  in  itself.  The  pages  of  the  Congressional  Record 
where  it  may  be  found  follow:  House  Roll  7617 — To  pro- 
vide that  the  United  States  shall  aid  the  States  in  the  con- 
struction of  rural  post  roads,  and  for  other  purposes — was 
introduced  by  Mr.  Dorsey  W.  Shackleford,  of  Missouri, 
January  6,  1916  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Roads, 
637. — Reported  back  (H.  Rept.  26),  746. — Debated,  1131, 
1165,  1234,  1269,  1285,  1353-1368,  1373-1408,  1451-1480, 
1516-1537  (Appendix,  21,  36,  141,  157,  160,  162,  172,  177, 
178,  188,  203,  207,  208,  209,  211,  213,  214,  216,  218,  593, 
1273,  2247). — Amended  and  passed  house  January  25,  1916, 
Ayes  283,  Noes  81,  Present  3,  not  voting  67,  1536,  1547. — 
Referred  to  Senate  Committee  on  Agriculture  and  Forestry, 
1551. — Motion  for  change  of  reference  debated,  2049-2057, 
2329-2335. — Reference  changed  to  Committee  on  Post 
Offices  and  Post  Roads,  2334,  2335. — Reported  with  amend- 
ments (S.  Rept.  250),  3460,  3881. — Debated,  6425-6433, 
649U-6504,  6532-6549,  6565-6585,  6731,  6782-6785,  6840- 
6849,  6897-6899,  7119-7127,  7225-7228,  7291-7300,  7414, 
7451,  7456-7465,  7499-7518,  7560-7571.— Amended  and 
passed  Senate  unanimously,  May  8,  1916,  7571. — Referred 
to  House  Committee  on  Roads — Reported  back  (H.  Rept. 
732),  8357. — House  disagrees  to  Senate  amendments  and 
asks  for  a conference,  8749. — Senate  insists  on  its  amend- 
ments and  agrees  to  a conference,  8783. — Conference  ap- 
pointed, 8749,  8783. — Conference  report  (S.  Doe.  No.  474) 
made  in  Senate,  9964. — Conference  report  unanimously 


158 


The  Modern  Wagon  Road 


agreed  to  in  Senate  June  27,  191G,  10086. — Conference  re- 
port (No.  856)  made  in  House.  10171. — Conference  report 
debated  in  House,  10162-10173  (Appendix,  1316,  1318, 
1334,  1340,  1360,  1361,  1647,  1719,  1724,  1793,  1860,  2082). 
—Conference  report  agreed  to  in  House,  June  28,  1916,  by 
a vote  of  181  ayes  to  53  noes,  10173. — Examined  and 
signed,  10348,  10371. — Presented  to  the  President,  10446. — 
Approved  (Public  Statutes  No.  156,  July  11,  1916),  10836. 

“Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  Regulations  for  carrying  out,”  Office 
of  Public  Roads  Circular  No.  65.  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Free  Delivery  of  Mail.  Agricultural  Year  Book,  1917 ; Post- 
master General’s  Reports,  1892-1899;  Ex.  Doc.  1,  Pt.  4, 
52d  Cong.,  2d  Sess.,  p.  11 ; Ex.  Doe.  1,  Pt.  4,  53d  Cong., 
2d  Sess.,  pp.  ix,  55;  Ex.  Doc.  1,  Pt.  1,  54th  Cong.,  3d  Sess., 
pp.  11,  120 ; H.  Doc.  4,  54th  Cong.,  1st  Sess.,  pp.  8,  116 ; 
H.  Doc.  4,  54th  Cong.,  2d  Sess.,  pp.  25,  129 ; H.  Doc.  4, 
55th  Cong.,  3d  Sess.,  pp.  12,  104;  American  Tear  Book, 
1919,  p.  556.  D.  Appleton  & Company. 

Funk  and  Wagnalls’  Encyclopaedia,  Article  “Cycling.” 

Good  Roads  Year  Book,  1917,  “State  Highway  Department 
Legislation,”  pp.  37-218. 

Good  Roads  Meetings. — “Iowa  Highway  Meeting,”  Engineering 
Record,  August  27,  1892;  National  Highway  Association  at 
Portland,  Oregon,  The  Morning  Oregonian,  June  22,  1905; 
Office  of  the  Public  Roads  Bulletins,  Nos.  15,  17,  19,  21-26. 

Greathouse,  Charles  II.,  “The  Delivery  of  Rural  Mails,”  Year 
Book,  1917.  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 

“Highway  Bonds,”  The  American  Year  Book,  1919,  1920.  D. 
Appleton  & Co.,  New  York. 

House  Document  No.  1510,  “Federal  Aid  to  Good  Roads,”  being 
Vol.  99  of  the  House  Documents. 

Iowa  Code  of  1851,  “Road  Laws.” 

Office  of  Public  Roads  Established,  Bulletin  No.  1,  1894,  Report 
of  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  1893,  p.  36.  U.  S.  Dept  of 
Agriculture. 

New  York  Times,  Good  Roads  Department,  Sept.  11,  1892. 

Nye,  Bill,  “On  Good  Roads,”  Good  Roads,  September,  1S92. 

Perkins,  George  A.,  “State  Highways  of  Massachusetts,”  U.  S. 
Dept,  of  Agri.  Year  Book,  1894,  p.  505. 

Post  Roads. — The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  on,  Sec- 
tion 8. 

Potter,  I.  B.,  “The  Gospel  of  Good  Roads,”  League  of  Amer- 
ican Wheelmen. 

Smith,  Charles  Emory,  “Rural  Mail  Delivery,”  Agricultural 
Year  Book,  1900,  p.  522.  U.  S.  Dept  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  VI 


INTERRELATION  BETWEEN  HIGHWAY  AND  OTHER 
KINDS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

Transportation  has  been  classified  as  primary  and 
secondary.  Transportation  on  the  public  highway,  whether 
of  raw  products  to  the  market  or  finished  products  to  the 
consumer,  is  denominated  primary;  transportation  by  rail- 
roads, canals,  and  ships  as  secondary.  Practically  all 
secondary  transportation  is  of  products  which  were  first 
or  last  or  both  subjects  of  primary  transportation.1  There 
should,  therefore,  be  a natural  harmonious  relation  between 
them.  Suppose  the  foot  should  say  to  the  hand,  “You  are 
useless,  it  is  I who  support  the  body”;  and  the  hand 
should  retort,  “Think  you’re  smart,  don’t  you?  I’ll  let 
you  know  it  is  I who  collect  and  prepare  the  food  which 
nourishes  it;  a log  of  wood  could  easily  replace  you”: 
would  that  make  either  one  of  them  independent  of  the 
other  ? 

Too  true  that  the  great  railroad  corporations  have  not 
always  acted  in  a manner  suitable  to  the  man  in  the  street, 
that  they  have  often  taken  too  much  toll,  that  they  have 
become  rich  and  arrogant,  that  they  have  frequently 
manipulated  the  political  machinery  of  government  in  their 
own  favor,  that  they  have  exploited  where  they  should  not, 
that  they  have  shown  favoritism  to  prominent  shippers, 
and  that  they  have  often  borne  down  heavily  on  the  labor- 
ing man;  but,  this  country  would  never  have  been  de- 
veloped to  its  present  state  of  civilization  and  prosperity 
without  some  powerful  and  efficacious  method  of  transpor- 
tation. The  railroads,  proving  themselves  to  be  more 

1 Chatburn ’s  “Highway  Engineering,”  Wiley  & Sons,  N.  Y. 

159 


160  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

efficient  than  either  the  public  highways  or  the  waterways, 
without  perhaps  intending  any  maliciousness,  put  them 
practically  out  of  business.  Now  that  improved  roads  and 
automobiles  and  motor  trucks  are  giving  the  railroads  a 
race  for  their  life  some  unthinking  persons  are  gloating 
over  the  fact  and  shouting  “to  the  victor  belongs  the 
spoils.”  The  evolutionary  law  that  the  “fittest  will  sur- 
vive” does  not  necessarily  mean  that  what  is  best  for  the 
world,  for  government,  for  society,  for  business  will  al- 
ways survive.  Weeds  will  often  choke  out  the  corn  un- 
less prevented  by  outside  influence.  A beautiful  elm  stands 
on  the  corner.  Every  spring  it  sheds  an  abundance  of 
seeds ; soon  these  germinate  and  there  springs  up  through- 
out the  lawn,  flower  and  vegetable  gardens,  myriads  of 
young  elm  trees.  Now  elm  trees  in  their  proper  place  are 
desirable,  are  useful,  are  ornamental  and  furnish  pleasure, 
but  when  they  become  weeds  they  should  be  rooted  up  that 
the  lawn,  the  vegetables,  and  the  flowers  may  persist. 
Here  the  fittest  for  society  survives  only  because  of  artifical 
regulation.  The  railroads,  steam  and  electric,  the  water- 
ways and  the  highways  all  have  spheres  of  usefulness ; let 
each  perform  its  function  and  there  need  be  no  incongruity 
or  discord. 

Experience  has  proved  time  and  again  that  any  machine 
has  a particular  capacity  at  which  it  can  be  most  efficiently 
operated.  A simple  stone  crusher  kept  half  full  is  run- 
ning at  a loss ; if  crowded  and  speeded  up  it  will  wear 
and  break  unduly.  It  would  be  foolish  to  run  continually 
a 50  horse-power  engine  to  serve  a 2 horse-power  motor. 
An  electric  light  plant  is  most  economical  when  operated 
at  its  “capacity.”  Horse  and  wagons,  motor  trucks,  rail- 
ways, canals,  and  ships,  are  but  machines,  and  the  law 
holds  with  all  of  them  that  they  are  most  efficient  when 
operated  at  their  proper  capacity. 

Another  economic  truth  is  that  the  unit  cost  of  produc- 
tion is  usually  lowest  when  the  output  is  great.  Quantity 
production  is  the  goal  of  practically  all  successful  manu- 
facturing enterprises.  Automatic  and  near-automatic 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  161 

machines  replace  the  human  hand.  One  person  by  the  aid 
of  mechanical  and  electrical  devices  produces  as  much  in 
the  same  time  as  could  a score  or  even  a hundred  without 
such  help  formerly.  The  chief  reason  why  quantity  pro- 
duction is  cheaper  than  individual  production  is  that  it 
allows  for  a division  of  labor,  a separation  of  the  prepar- 
ing processes  into  several  operations  or  occupations.  Grow- 
ing the  grain,  transporting  it  to  market,  grinding  it  into 
flour,  baking  it  into  bread,  and  selling  the  bread,  indicate 
some  of  the  several  occupations,  that  arise  in  the  simple 
preparation  of  “our  daily  bread.”  The  meat-packing  in- 
dustry affords  an  excellent  example  of  the  principle:  The 
animal  is  surveyed  and  “laid  off  like  a map”;  and  each 
workman  as  the  carcass  passes  him  has  one  operation  to 
perform.  One  man  sticks  the  pig,  another  scalds  it,  an- 
other pulls  the  hair  from  a particular  portion  of  the  body, 
one  cuts  the  slits  for  the  gambols,  another  inserts  the  sticks, 
still  others  hoist  the  body  to  the  hanger,  and  so  on  as  it 
proceeds  along  its  course  scores  of  persons  are  each  doing 
a very  limited  portion  of  the  work  until  the  entire  animal  is 
prepared  and  packed  for  shipment.  The  workmen  are 
classified  and  the  highest  paid  are  put  to  the  most  delicate 
or  important  parts  while  for  the  less  delicate  and  less  im- 
portant duties  the  pay  is  very  much  lower.  But  each  work- 
man having  only  a small  variety  of  work  to  perform  soon 
becomes  adept  and  can  do  a much  greater  amount  than  if 
he  attempted  the  entire  round  of  labor.  The  building  of 
automobiles  wherein  materials  start  from  different  places 
and  eventually  coalesce  as  they  proceed  on  their  journey 
through  the  shops  by  each  workman  as  they  pass  adding 
one  thing  or  performing  one  operation  until  the  whole 
emerges  a complete  machine  ready  to  run  away  under  its 
own  power,  is  another  case  in  point. 

Mr.  James  J.  Hill,  when  president  of  the  Great  North- 
ern, Northern  Pacific  and  Chicago  Burlington  & Quincy 
railroad  companies,  applied  the  principle  of  quantity  pro- 
duction to  railroad  transportation.  Under  his  supervision 
locomotives  and  cars  increased  in  size;  this  necessitated 


162  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

heavier  rails  and  more  substantial  track;  trains  were  not 
allowed  to  leave  the  terminals  until  a full  load  had  been 
accumulated;  regular  schedules  were  of  course  done  away 
with  except  for  passenger  and  a few  local  freight  trains. 
Other  trains  were  to  be  run  only  at  the  full  capacity  of  the 
locomotive.  This  was  not  conducive  to  speed,  but  the  unit 
cost  of  hauling  a ton  of  freight  one  mile  was  very  ma- 
terially reduced.  The  same  crew  with  comparatively  small 
increase  in  costs  may  operate  a train  of  many  ears  about 
as  easily  as  one  of  few  cars. 

The  same  principle  underlies  the  efforts  of  motor  trans- 
port companies.  They  are  increasing  the  size  of  trucks 
and  loads  to  decrease  cost.  They  have  not  used  discretion, 
however,  in  this  and  their  heavy  trucks  have  ground  to 
powder  high-cost  roadways  with  the  result  that  public 
sentiment  is  reacting  against  them  and  regulatory  laws  are 
being  passed  by  many  legislatures. 

Increasing  the  size  of  the  plant,  train,  or  truck  will  not 
bring  economies  unless  it  can  be  run  at  its  capacity  load, 
consequently  when  the  trade  or  traffic  will  not  utilize  full 
loading  a smaller  plant  should  be  adopted.  To  run  a 12 
horse-power  gasoline  engine  to  turn  a 1*4  horse-power 
washing  machine  motor  is  no  more  foolish  than  to  run 
100-car  locomotives  to  pull  2-car  trains,  or  7-ton  trucks 
where  the  load  never  exceeds  2 tons,  or  7-passenger  automo- 
biles with  1 or  2 passengers.  The  contention  is  well 
founded  that  western  railroad  methods  are  futile  on  New 
England  railroads2  and  that  if  prosperity  is  ever  to  come 
to  New  England  roads  they  must  reduce  their  rates  and 
rates  can  only  be  reduced  by  making  the  size  and  number 
of  cars  commensurate  with  the  character  and  amount  of 
traffic.  In  England  where  shipping  distances  are  com- 
paratively short  the  small  van  or  car  and  quick  deliveries 
have  been  evolved.  In  well-settled  portions  of  this  country, 
as  in  New  England,  similar  practices  might  well  be  adopted 
that  the  railways  may  not  be  entirely  eliminated  and  the 

2 Cf.  ‘‘Boot,  Hog  or  Die,”  by  Philip  Cabot,  Atlantic  Monthly, 
August,  1921. 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  163 

public  forced  eventually  to  resort  to  more  expensive  trans- 
portation methods  when  both  direct  and  indirect  costs  are 
considered  over  the  public  highways. 

The  railroads  are  also  complaining  that  the  automobile 
is  cutting  into  their  passenger  earnings.  This  is  no  doubt 
true.  What  else  can  be  expected  with  approximately 
11,000,000  machines  now  in  operation?  Thousands  of 
tourists  are  daily  traversing  the  country.  They  find  the  out- 
ing pleasant  and  when  several  occupy  one  car  it  is  cheaper 
than  railroad  travel.  Free  camping  along  the  way  avoids 
hotel  bills  which  have  grown  inordinately  during  the  past 
few  years.  If  these  rates  continue,  simple  inns  as  in  the 
olden  days  may  grow  up  and  cut  into  the  business  of  the 
high-priced  hotels.  Lower  charges  for  both  railroads  and 
hotels  will  mitigate  but  not  entirely  eliminate  the  automo- 
bile competition.  The  motor  car  is  here  to  stay  and  auto- 
mobile travel  will  continue  to  increase.  It  is  no  longer  a 
theory  but  a condition  which  exists,  and  the  railroads  and 
hotels  should  adopt  the  policy  of  the  wily  politician, — 
who  said,  “If  you  can’t  lick  ’em,  jine  ’em,” — meet  the  auto- 
mobile half  way  and  make  the  most  of  it. 

If  predictions  of  those  in  close  touch  with  the  automobile 
business  be  any  criterion  the  railroads  will  feel  the  influence 
of  the  motor  car  more  and  more.  H.  F.  Blanchard,  writing 
in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  January,  1923,  p.  26,  claims 
that  the  $150  passenger  car  is  in  sight,  and  that  the  “satur- 
ation point  ’ ’ which  has  been  a worry  for  years  has  not  yet 
arrived  and  will  not  if  the  lowering  of  prices  keeps  pace 
with  increased  production.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  pro- 
duction of  automobiles  and  trucks  is  still  increasing.  The 
1922  output  (2,577,220  machines)  is  more  than  the  1920 
output  (2,276,000)  and  these  are  bought  by  the  public  as 
fast  as  made.  Mr.  Durant,  a prominent  manufacturer,  is 
quoted  as  saying  that:  “The  development  of  a cheaper 
car  than  we  now  believe  possible  is  only  a question  of  the 
development  of  the  highways.  Millions  more  of  automobiles 
would  be  in  use  in  America  to-day  if  the  conditions  of  our 
highways  permitted.  When  our  automobiles  can  be  built 


164  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 


to  run  on  highways  that  are  on  the  average  as  good  as  our 
city  streets — and  this  is  bound  to  come  sooner  or  later — 
we  shall  have  lighter,  better  and  far  cheaper  cars.  And 
the  time  is  not  far  distant.” 

In  Roger  W.  Babson’s  weekly  comment  dated  September 
30,  1922,  we  read : 

Railroads  have  already  felt  the  effects  of  pleasure  automobiles, 
but  they  have  not  really  begun  yet  to  feel  the  effects  of  auto 
trucking.  The  trucking  of  goods  within  a radii  of  50  or  100 
miles  has  only  begun  and  this  radius  may  readily  be  extended 
to  cover  200  or  250  miles.  Transcontinental  systems  . . . have 
nothing  to  fear  from  trucks.  In  fact  the  trucks  may  help  them. 
Other  roads  [those  intermediate  in  length]  can  survive  and  per- 
haps profit  under  this  competition.  With  roads  such  as  [short- 
line roads]  this  is  not  true.  These  roads  are  bound  to  suffer  far 
more  from  the  truck  than  they  now  think  possible. 

We  shall  live  to  see  great  highways  built  by  the  state  ex- 
clusively for  truck  use.  Railroads  are  destined  ultimately  to 
lose  all  of  their  short  haul  business  and  hence  the  roads  -which 
are  in  comparatively  small  and  compact  territories  are  sure  to 
suffer.  The  only  hope  for  some  roads  ...  is  to  sell  certain  of 
their  rights  of  way  to  the  state  in  order  that  the  tracks  may  be 
removed  and  concrete  highways  laid  in  their  place.  Many  roads 
have  parallel  lines  to-day  under  their  control.  The  wise  rail- 
road company  will  develop  one  of  these  for  itself  and  will  sell 
the  other  at  a good  price  to  the  state  for  a concrete  truck 
highway. 

If  the  steam  railroads  are  feeling  the  competition  of  the 
motor,  the  interurban  trolley  lines  and  the  street-car  com- 
panies are  harder  hit.  The  interurban  lines  are  most  of 
them  short  and  depend  upon  local  traffic.  Their  cars 
stopped  at  any  cross-road  along  the  way  to  pick  up  pas- 
sengers and  freight.  But  the  motor  transport  is  going 
them  one  better;  it  picks  up  its  load  at  the  front  gate, 
saving  the  trouble  of  even  a short  walk,  or  in  the  case  of 
freight,  of  loading  and  unloading  and  a short  haul  to  the 
track. 

The  case  of  street-car  lines  is  slightly  different.  So 
many  persons  are  purchasing  and  daily  using  automobiles 
to  go  to  and  from  business  that  the  street-car  people  have 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  165 

complained  bitterly.  Many  lines  are  running  behind  and 
one  at  least,  Des  Moines,  < Iowa,  entirely  stopped  operation 
(August,  1917).  The  moment  they  found  their  revenues 
decreasing  they  ran  to  the  railway  commissions  and  city 
councils  with  requests  for  permits  to  increase  rates  of  fare. 
The  increase  when  allowed  not  only  failed  to  alleviate  but 
aggravated  the  trouble.  Even  old-fashioned  persons  who 
formerly  traveled  home  for  luncheon  and  back  afterward 
began  patronizing  cafeterias  and  clubs.  The  habit  of  eat- 
ing noon  luncheon  down  town  was  soon  formed.  Others 
emulated  their  example,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  hundreds 
and  even  thousands  of  fares  per  week.  Riding  to  and  from 
work  in  an  automobile  has  a fascination  for  most  men,  and 
every  one  in  a street  car  who  sees  his  neighbor  whizzing 
along  by  the  side  vows  that  he,  too,  will  drive  a car  as  soon 
as  he  can  save  enough  money  to  make  the  first  payment. 
Useless  for  the  street  car  managers  to  try  to  prove  to  him 
that  the  expenses  of  a car — gas,  oil,  tires,  repairs  and  de- 
preciation— are  vastly  greater  than  street  car  fares ; every- 
body knows  that,  but  he  must  be  in  the  style.  Farmers,  as 
the  implement  dealers  have  found  to  their  sorrow,  will  do 
without  or  tinker  up  old  harvesters  and  plows  in  order  to 
enjoy  the  pleasure  of  owning  an  automobile.  The 
mechanic  may  change  his  seven-passenger  for  a light-four 
as  wages  go  down  but  he  still  insists  on  riding  his  own  ear. 
The  merchant  while  complaining  that  others  should  give 
up  their  machines  and  pay  their  bills,  hangs  on  to  his  own 
with  the  grip  of  death.  Women,  even,  are  willing  to  give 
up  pretty  dresses  and  wear  khaki  overalls  at  least  half  the 
time.  It  looks  as  though  many  will  hereafter  live  a 
nomadic  life  using  their  cars  and  garages  more  than  their 
one-  and  two-room  apartments.  Stop  the  people  from  using 
motors  and  force  them  back  to  the  street  cars?  Never, 
until  the  hardships  of  living  reach  the  state  of  starvation 
and  nakedness. 

In  addition  to  the  owners  of  automobiles  there  are  the 
taxicabs,  “jitneys,”  and  buses.  If  the  street  car  system 
is  the  logical  plant  it  is  desired  to  maintain  for  the  good  of 


166  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

the  community  then  these  others  are  weeds  if  allowed  free 
rein.  If,  when  the  street-car  companies  go  bankrupt  and 
quit  business,  the  motor  cars  could  give  a better  service, 
outside  of  the  fact  that  property  had  been  destroyed  with- 
out compensation,  no  particular  damage  would  be  notice- 
able to  the  community  as  a whole.  But  the  experience  of 
Des  Moines  shows  that  while  special  efforts  were  made  to 
transport  every  one;  buses  were  brought  in  from  distant 
cities  and  owners  of  cars  most  freely  picked  up  the  pedes- 
trians, nevertheless,  there  was  much  inconvenience  and 
discontent.  Private  cars  cannot  long  be  depended  on  to 
carry  free  the  throng;  taxicabs  are  too  expensive,  in- 
sufficient in  number  and  have  no  regular  schedule ; jitneys 
are  unreliable  sporadic  cars,  and  half  of  them  go  out  of 
business  on  days  of  bad  weather.  There  is  left  then  the 
buses.  These  may  be  made  of  such  size  and  be  run  with 
such  regularity  as  to  be  really  valuable  for  local  transpor- 
tation service.  No  doubt  they  will  survive  and  always  be 
a strong  competitor  of  the  electric  surface  street  car.  Not 
being  confined  to  a track  they  load  and  unload  at  the  curb 
thus  eliminating  an  element  of  danger  from  passing 
vehicles  much  feared  by  timid  people.  Not  having  to  keep 
up  a track,  trolley  lines,  or  a plant  for  generating 
electricity  the  expenses  are  not  particularly  great  per  bus, 
from  $25  to  $35  per  day  will  cover  them,  it  is  estimated,3 


3 This  estimate  includes  the  following  items: 


Heavy  Car 

Light  Car 

2 Drivers 

$8.00-10.00 

$10.00  per  day 

$10.00 

Tires 

4.00-  6.00 

6.00 

4.00 

Oil,  etc 

.75-  1.00 

1.00 

.75 

Gasoline 

3.50-  5.50 

5.00 

3.50 

Depreciation 

4.00-  6.00 

6.00 

4.00 

Interest 

1.00-  1.50 

1.50 

1.00 

Insurance 

1.00-  1.50 

1.50 

1.00 

Garage 

.50-  1.00 

1.00 

.50 

License,  taxes 

.75-  1.50 

1.50 

.75 

Repairs 

.50-  1.00 

.50 

.50 

24.00-35.00 

$34.00 

$26.00 

GASOLINE  LOCOMOTIVE  AMD  TRAILER 


TRACKLESS  TROLLEY  OPERATED  ON  STATEN 
ISLAND,  N.  Y. 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  167 

which  puts  the  bus  on  a par  in  this  respect  with  the  small 
street  car. 

There  is  a legitimate  field  for  these  buses  in  the  smaller 
cities  and  on  streets  in  large  cities  not  easily  reached  by,  or 
upon  which  it  is  desirable  not  to  have  street-car  tracks. 
But  they  should  not  be  free  lances — they  should  be  under 
regulations  as  street  cars  are  under  regulations,  they  should 
make  scheduled  trips,  they  should  be  backed  by  capital  or 
insurance  sufficient  to  pay  indemnities  in  cases  of  accident 
and  upon  payment  of  license  fees  are  entitled  to  protection 
and  possibly  monopoly  in  their  prescribed  territory. 

A cheap  form  of  transportation,  either  electric  trolley, 
with  or  without  track,  or  buses,  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Buses  and  individual  jitneys  cannot,  where  the  business  is 
heavy,  carry  passengers  as  cheaply  as  the  electric  street 
car,  but  for  a more  limited  traffic  the  buses  may  take  their 
place,  and  for  still  less  traffic  jitneys  can  find  a useful 
occupation.  If  buses  and  jitneys  are  allowed  absolute  free- 
dom without  restrictions  as  to  schedule  or  route  they  will 
skim  the  cream  from  the  street  transportation  business  and 
so  reduce  the  revenues  of  the  street  cars  that  they  will  have 
to  discontinue  operation.  A thing  so  undesirable  that  the 
public  will  have  to  subsidize  the  street  cars  and  guarantee 
a certain  percentage  of  earnings  or  take  over  their  owner- 
ship, run  them  at  a nominal  fare  and  let  the  taxpayer  take 
care  of  the  deficit.  By  these  means  those  persons  who  ride 
their  own  automobiles,  the  heavier  taxpayers,  who  are,  or 
should  be,  most  vitally  interested  in  maintaining  cheap 
transportation  for  the  unfortunate  residue  who  cannot 
possibly  afford  automobiles,  yet  whose  labor  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity  of 
the  city,  will  be  required  to  pay  a portion  of  the  upkeep 
of  street-car  transportation.  If  a subsidy  be  adopted  it 
would  be  better  that  it  should  not  be  a direct  guaranty  of 
a fixed  percentage  of  earnings  for  in  that  manner  there 
is  no  premium  on  efficiency  as  our  Government  found  to  its 
cost  in  dealing  with  the  railroads  during  the  recent  war.  It 
would  be  better  if  some  sort  of  a sliding  scale  could  be 


168  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

worked  out  whereby  the  lines  should  be  relieved  of  occupa- 
tional taxes  or  license  fees  in  proportion  as  they  lowered 
fares,  and  such  that  the  lower  the  fares  the  greater  the 
percentage  of  profit  they  might  earn. 

The  contract  or  charter  might  provide  that  all  earnings 
above  a specified  percentage,  due  allowance  having  been 
made  for  operation,  repairs,  and  upkeep,  on  bona  fide 
capital  invested  should  be  turned  over  to  the  city  as  a 
license  for  the  use  of  the  streets.  For  example  with  a 
fare  of  three  cents  the  city  might  guarantee  a 5 per  cent 
income,  but  allow,  by  reduction  of  taxes  and  all  payments 
to  the  city  an  earning  of  10  per  cent ; on  a five  cent  fare 
guarantee  3 per  cent  and  allow  earnings  of  8 per  cent ; and 
so  on  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  table  the  figures  of 
which  are  merely  illustrative : 


With  a fare  of 

The  City 
Guarantees 

And  allows  an 
earning  of 

3 cents 

4 per  cent 

10  per  cent 

4 

3| 

9 

5 

3 

8 

6 

2 

7 

7 

1 

6 

8 

0 

5 

To  make  a workable  contract  of  this  sort  there  would 
first  have  to  be  an  agreement  as  to  the  corporation  capital 
upon  which  earning  percentages  are  to  be  based.  If  this 
could  be  made  equal  to  the  real  investment  it  would  be 
absolutely  just  to  both  the  public  and  the  corporation. 
However,  the  so-called  unearned  increment  would  in  some 
cases  have  to  be  considered.  Publicity  in  accounting, 
capitalization,  bonded  indebtedness  and  earnings,  and  the 
feeling  engendered  that  the  public  is  in  a sense  a co-partner 
with  the  corporation  would  add  to  more  harmonious  rela- 
tions between  the  two. 

Similar  contracts  might  be  arranged  between  bus  lines 
and  the  city,  or  between  bus  lines  and  the  state  where  rural 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportatin  169 


roads  are  used,  and  between  railroad  and  other  transporta- 
tion corporations  and  the  Federal  Government  for  inter- 
state lines. 

Objection  may  be  raised  to  this  plan  on  the  ground  that 
it  violates  usury  laws.  Nearly  every  state  in  the  Union 
provides  by  law  for  a maximum  rate  of  interest.  Laws  of 
this  kind  have  existed  almost  since  the  beginning  of  history 
and  are  so  imbedded  in  the  minds  of  the  people  that  they 
believe  6 or  7 per  cent  is  all  a public  service  corporation 
should  be  allowed  to  make  on  its  investment,  when  as  a 
matter  of  fact  all  sorts  of  private  businesses  are  making 
profits  many  times  that  amount  without  hindrance  by  law 
or  public  sentiment.  People  who  risk  money  in  adventures 
which  are  in  general  for  the  good  of  the  public  should  be 
allowed  returns  fully  as  high  as  those  suggested,  even 
though  they  do  go  beyond  the  customary  7 per  cent. 
Whatever  the  right  figures  are  careful  accounting  and 
publicity  will  have  a tendency  to  establish,  and  once  estab- 
lished they  ought  to  be  as  stable  and  permanent  as  life  in- 
surance rates  and  thus  encourage  the  investment  of  funds 
in  such  enterprises. 

Legitimate  Fields  of  Transportation  Agencies. — Agree- 
ing, then,  that  the  present  systems  of  transportation  should 
not  be  put  out  of  business  by  less  efficient  ones,  what  seems 
to  be  the  most  feasible  interrelations  that  will  allow  all  of 
them  to  live  and  let  live  ? 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  what  the  railroads  can 
and  do  transport  large  quantities  long  distances  quicker, 
better,  and  more  efficiently  than  can  be  done  on  the  high- 
ways. Highways  may  be  considered  as  feeders  of  the  rail- 
ways. With  good  roads  the  zone  from  which  the  railway 
can  profitably  draw  products  for  long  distance  or  quantity 
transportation  is  widened,  and  again  widened  very  ma- 
terially when  better  roads  allow  the  use  of  motors  in  place 
of  horses.  This,  if  no  other  railway  interferes,  means  a 
larger  grand  total  of  traffic  hauled.  Again  the  character 
of  the  farming  along  the  zone  served  by  a railroad  will 
depend  upon  the  facilities  for  marketing  as  well  as  soil  and 


170  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 


climate.  Those  products  ordinarily  called  perishable  may 
be  raised  if  the  roads  are  good  so  that  they  may  be 
marketed  quickly  and  cheap  enough  to  compete  with  other 
localities.  Such  produce  yield  a larger  net  return  per 
acre  than  the  staple  grain  products.  Intensive  farming 
is  usually  necessary  in  such  cases  so  that  a smaller  farm 
will  support  a family  allowing  an  increase  in  rural  popu- 
lation, a thing  most  highly  desirable  in  this  country.  The 
railroad  benefits  again,  then,  because  of  the  increased  pro- 
duce raised  by  intensive  farming  brought  about  by  quick 
marketing  facilities,  and  by  increased  freight  and  passenger 
traffic  necessary  to  supply  the  greater  population. 

Furthermore,  if  roads  were  good  throughout  the  year 
marketing  would  be  spread  over  the  entire  period  and  there 
would  not  at  times  be  a glut  with  corresponding  scarcity 
of  cars,  and  other  facilities  for  handling.  If  cars,  ware- 
houses and  elevators  were  sufficient  to  care  for  these 
periods  there  would  be  an  over  supply  of  facilities  at  other 
times  and  capital  would  be  unnecessarily  tied  up  produc- 
ing larger  overhead  charges.  With  good  roads  there  would 
likewise  be  less  need  for  large  quantities  of  money  at  par- 
ticular periods  of  the  year  as  uniform  marketing  would 
allow  a smaller  capital  to  be  turned  oftener.  Moreover, 
unproductive  branch  lines  would  by  the  increased  traffic 
brought  to  them  by  the  improved  highways  be  either  made 
productive  or  they  could  be  dispensed  with  altogether. 
The  unproductive  short-haul  traffic  would  then  be  cared 
for  by  electric  railways,  motor  trucks  or  even  by  horse 
wagons. 

Intra  City  Traffic. — Mr.  J.  C.  Thirwall,  of  the  railway 
and  tractive  engineering  department  of  the  General 
Electric  Company  ( General  Electric  Review,  Vol.  XXIV, 
pp.  974—985),  discussing  the  fields  of  the  rail  car,  trolley 
bus  and  gasoline  bus,  tabulates  the  respective  costs  of  these 
types  on  a comparative  basis  for  a variety  of  conditions. 
In  general  the  calculations  indicate  that : 

(a)  Where  rush  hour  headways  of  3 miu.  or  less  are  re- 
quired with  safety  cars,  rail  cars  are  the  most  economical  and 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  171 


up  to  6 min.  headways  offer  successful  competition  to  the  other 
types  where  the  road  is  a going  concern. 

( b ) On  longer  headways  the  trolley  bus  appears  to  have  the 
advantage  due  to  the  lower  fixed  charges. 

(c)  The  gasoline  bus  on  account  of  higher  operating  expense 
does  not  offer  competition  to  the  rail  car  until  minimum  head- 
ways of  10  min.  are  reached  on  new  routes  and  20  min.  on 
existing  lines. 

( d ) The  trolley  bus  is  more  economical  than  the  gasoline  bus 
up  to  headways  of  60  min.  or  longer. 

A tabulation  of  the  respective  fields  is  as  follows: 

Minimum  headways,  3 min.  or  less;  rail  cars. 

Minimum  headways,  3 to  6 min.;  rail  cars  or  trolley  bus. 

Minimum  headways,  6 to  60  min. ; trolley  bus. 

Minimum  headways,  60  min.  or  more;  gasoline  bus. 

This  does  not  mean  that  existing  lines  with  headways 
of  71/2  to  10  minutes  should  be  scrapped  and  replaced 
with  the  newer  forms  of  transportation.  It  would  not 
pay  to  do  this  until  a headway  greater  than  15  or  20 
minutes  has  been  reached. 

Length  of  Haul  for  Economical  Trucking-. — The  railroads 
would  not  be  alone  in  the  benefits  due  to  better  roads. 
Truck  lines  could  be  established  to  care  for  freight  and 
passenger  traffic  between  farm  and  station.  Here  the  truck 
and  railroads  would  cooperate,  there  would  be  no  compe- 
tition, for  each  would  be  performing  a function  incapable 
(or  unprofitable)  of  performance  by  the  other;  the  net 
result  would  be  a benefit  to  the  entire  community.  But 
most  transport  lines  that  are  being  established  come  into 
actual  competition  with  existing  railroad  lines.  Just  bow 
far  a motor  truck  may  profitably  compete  with  the  rail- 
way depends,  of  course,  on  the  relative  costs  of  transpor- 
tation. Mr.  Cabot4  calculates  that  twelve  miles  is  the 
dividing  line  between  motor  truck  transport  and  rail  trans- 
port. He  figures  the  cost  of  delivery  and  removal  from  the 
railway  station  at  15  cents  per  hundred  weight,  or  $3  per 
ton  at  each  end  for  terminal  charges  and  that  the  cost  of 
motor  truck  haul  is  at  least  50  cents  per  ton  mile.  A ton 

4 “Root,  Hog,  or  Die:  The  New  Englander  and  His  Railroads, ’’ 
by  Philip  Cabot,  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  August,  1921,  p.  258. 


172  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 


may  be  hauled,  therefore,  on  truck,  12  miles  to  balance  the 
railway  terminal  expense  or  charge. 

A formula  might  be  worked  out  this  way. 

Let  z=the  number  of  miles  where  rail  and  truck  charges 
just  balance; 

m=motor  truck  charge  per  ton-mile; 
r=rail  charge  per  ton -mile; 

f=terminal  railroad  charge-cost  of  collecting  and 
delivery  to  the  railroad  plus  the  cost  of  re- 
moval from  the  railroad. 

Thus  motor  charge  for  x miles  is  mx  and  railroad  charge 
for  same  distance  is  rx-\-t,  equating  these, 

mx=rx-\-t. 

Solving  for  the  distance  traveled, 


With  Mr.  Cabot’s  figures  this  formula  gives 


6.00 

.50 -.055 


600 

44.5 


13.5. 


Using  the  cost  25  cents  per  ton  mile  made  up  by  actual 
averages  compiled  by  the  Motor  Truck  Association  of 
America  and  5.5  cents  used  by  Mr.  Cabot  as  the  railroad 
cost  charge,  there  results 


6.00 
.25 -.05 


600 

20 


= 30  miles. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  this  formula  contemplates  no 
terminal  charge  for  the  motor  truck  as  it  is  expected  to 
pick  up  and  deliver  the  freight  at  the  doors  of  the  con- 
signor and  consignee  and  that  the  cost  of  doing  this  is  ab- 
sorbed in  the  cost  per  mile.  The  dividing  distance  between 
profitable  rail  and  freight  transportation,  x,  is  seen  by  the 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  173 

formula  to  vary  directly  with  the  terminal  charge  and  in- 
directly with  the  difference  between  motor  and  rail  cost 
per  mile.  To  lessen  this  distance  is  in  the  interest  of  the 
railroads  and  can  be  accomplished  by  decreasing  the  ter- 
minal charges  and  the  cost  of  transportation  per  ton-mile. 
Express  companies  have  for  years  accomplished  this  by 
employing  the  system  of  free  collection  and  delivery,  and 
railways  in  England  do  likewise.  The  motor  transport 
companies  will  have  to  decrease  their  cost  per  ton-mile  in 
order  to  increase  the  distance  that  it  is  profitable  for  the 
shipper  to  utilize  motor  trucks.  If  the  difference  in  cost 
per  ton-mile  could  be  reduced  to  twelve  cents  with  terminal 
costs  at  $6  per  ton,  and  doubtless  this  may  be  done  under 
favorable  circumstances,  the  distance  would  be  lengthened 
to  50  miles.  This  is  probably  the  maximum  motor  truck 
haul  which  can  in  general  profitably  compete  with  rail 
transportation.  With  better  roads,  larger  trucks,  trailers, 
or,  in  special  cases,  with  certain  classes  of  goods  and  com- 
modities, longer  hauls  will  be  profitable. 

The  distances  which  it  seems  profitable  to  do  trucking 
are  continually  being  lengthened.  Forrest  Crissey,  writ- 
ing in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post  of  December  16,  1922, 
relates  a case  in  which  household  goods  were  hauled  from 
Boston  to  Cleveland  at  a saving  over  rail  rates  and 
expenses  incurred  by  delays  of  $417.50  on  the  shipment. 

His  figures  summarized  are  as  follows: 


Rail — 

Crating  and  Hauling  to  Station  $ 300.00 

Freight  150.00 

Hauling  and  Uncrating  at  destination  . . 75.00 

Hotel  Bill  of  Family  of  five,  two  rooms 

and  board,  while  waiting  525.00 

House  rental  while  waiting  67.50 


Total  $1117.50 

Van  company’s  charge  from  home  to  home  $ 700.00 

Calculated  saving $ 417.50 


It  should  be  remembered  that  certain  kinds  of  goods, 


174  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

such  as  household,  lend  themselves  readily  to  truck  ship- 
ments. With  this  class  of  goods  expensive  packing  and 
several  handlings  are  eliminated.  Such  is  true  of  much 
merchandise  which  can  be  delivered  directly  from  the 
store  of  the  seller  to  the  door  of  the  buyer;  to  many 
varieties  of  manufactured  goods  which  are  sold  within 
comparatively  short  distances  of  the  factory.  Each  case 
should  be  worked  out  for  itself  and  all  the  various  kinds 
of  transportation  used  that  prove  to  be  practical  and 
economical.  Where  large  concerns  like  packing  houses 
are  supplied  with  railway  tracks  right  to  their  doors, 
shipping  in  car  load  and  train  load  lots  is  not  only  more 
economical  but  absolutely  necessary  where  such  large 
quantities  are  transported  in  refrigerator  cars.  But  for 
distribution  to  towns  near-by  the  truck  is  much  more 
convenient  and  economical.  It  is  impossible  to  say  for 
so-many-miles  it  is  cheaper  to  ship  by  truck,  because 
each  commodity  must  be  considered  individually  in  con- 
nection with  the  character  of  the  roads,  the  conditions  of 
weather  and  climate,  and  the  time  of  delivery.  While 
the  case  of  shipping  household  goods  alluded  to  above 
proved  very  successful  the  next  one  might  meet  in- 
clement weather,  the  truck  might  have  to  remain  out  in 
the  rain  and  some  of  the  goods  become  damaged,  as  was 
the  case  of  one  such  shipment  that  came  under  the 
winter’s  observation.  A single  swallow  does  not  make  a 
summer,  but  the  trend  is  no  doubt  toward  much  longer 
truck  trips.  And  as  the  roads  and  vehicles  become 
stabilized  and  standardized  this  will  be  even  more  evi- 
dent. For  example,  milk  collected  at  stations  50  and 
60  miles  from  the  large  cities  can  be  hauled  in  to  market 
in  large  tank  cars  which  are  built  somewhat  on  the 
thermos  or  vacuum  bottle  principle,  the  milk  arriving  at 
its  destination  cooler  and  in  every  way  better  than  if 
hauled  in  small  containers.  The  truck  has  a large  field 
open  for  its  especial  qualities.  Let  it  confine  its  opera- 
tions to  these  and  rail  competition  will  not  injure  it. 

Short-Haul  Roads  Reduce  Express  Rates. — The  Boston 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  175 

& Maine  Railroad  is  reducing  express  rates  between  Boston 
and  towns  within  a radius  of  50  miles  in  an  effort  to  win 
back  short-haul  traffic  lost  to  motor  trucks.5  The  average 
reduction  is  given  as  about  40  per  cent  on  less  than  car- 
load lots.  The  old  rail  service  rate  between  Lynn  and 
Boston  was  $1.50  per  ton,  iy2  cents  per  hundred,  with  a 
minimum  loading  of  20,000  pounds  per  car,  while  the  truck 
service  charge  is  about  $3  per  ton,  yet  it  is  estimated  that 
80  to  90  per  cent  of  the  business  was  by  truck.  The  re- 
duced rail  rate  is  5 cents  per  hundred,  $1  per  ton  with  the 
minimum  loading  eliminated.  It  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  people  are  willing  to  pay  a higher  rate  to  ship  by 
truck,  or  whether  the  trucks  will  meet  the  express  rates. 
The  railroads  may  still  lower  costs  by  one  or  two  other 
devices : They  may  use  lighter  weight  cars  and  locomotives ; 
they  may  use  gasoline  motor  cars  such  as  the  McKeen  used 
on  several  branch  line  runs  by  the  Union  Pacific,  or  a 
motor  car  now  being  tried  out  capable  of  running  on  rails 
or  on  the  pavements  at  will.  Such  a car  would  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  light  traction  on  the  rails  between  stations 
but  could  go  through  the  main  streets  to  pick  up  its  load. 
A rail-motor  bus  following  the  main  features  of  the  street 
bus  and  embodying  “the  same  elements  of  simplicity  in 
construction,  reliability  in  performance,  flexibility  in 
operation,  light  weight,  and  low  first  cost,6  has  been  built 
and  operated  at  an  average  of  14  miles  to  the  gallon  of 
gasoline,  a sufficient  indication  that  it  can  save  in  operat- 
ing expenses.  The  car  weighs  11,000  pounds  and  has  a 
maximum  speed  of  30  miles  per  hour,  and  when  required 
trailers  may  be  used  without  materially  decreasing  the 
speed. 

Avoiding  Waste. — Such  methods  of  cheapening  and 
bettering  railroad  transportation  together  with  a lowering 
of  rates  generally  to  a point  that  the  traffic  can  bear,  and 
the  adoption  of  managerial  methods  that  will  lessen  avoid- 
able wastes,  which  the  railroad  unions  estimate  at  one 

5 Wall  Street  Journal,  August  26,  1921. 

* The  Bailway  Review,  Chicago,  July  30,  1921. 


176  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 


billion  dollars  per  year,7  may  eventuate  in  a rehabilitation 
and  stabilization  of  the  railway  industry.  The  taking  over 
by  motor  trucks  of  short-haul  freight  and  passenger  traffic, 
even  though  it  cause  the  discontinuation  of  unprofitable 
branch  lines  may  prove  to  roads  but  a pruning  which  will 

7 W.  Jett  Lauck,  a union-labor  economist,  in  a report  laid  before 
the  Railroad  Labor  Board,  specifies  the  avoidable  wastes  as  follows: 

1.  Modernizing  locomotives. — Gross  reparable  deficiencies  are 
pointed  out  which  it  is  claimed  might  be  avoided  by  the  applications 
of  improvements  such  as  superheaters,  brick  arches,  mechanical 
stokers,  feed-water  heaters,  there  would  result  an  annual  saving  of  at 
least  $272,500,000. 

2.  Locomotive  operation. — The  magnitude  of  the  railways’  coal  bill 
is  considered  and  certain  of  the  larger  wastes  calculated,  and  it  is 
concluded  that  by  use  of  better  methods  of  coal  purchase,  coal  in- 
spection, careful  receipt,  and  efiicient  firing  of  the  locomotives,  an 
annual  saving  could  be  effected  of  at  least  $50,000,000. 

3.  Shop  organization  improvements. — The  sad  and  almost  incredible 
inadequacy  and  out-of-date  equipment  of  the  Tailway  shops  is  re- 
viewed, and  defenseless  wastes  considered,  and  it  is  conservatively 
estimated  that  by  a proper  shop  organization  an  annual  saving 
could  be  effected  of  at  least  $17,000,000. 

4.  Power-plant  fuel  savings. — The  obsolete  and  wasteful  condition 
of  the  power  plants  in  the  railway  shops  is  considered,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  in  this  field  the  possible  saving  of  fuel  would  by  itself 
amount  to  an  annual  total  of  $10,000,000. 

5.  Water-consumption  savings.— The  railroads  ’ expenditure  in  main- 
tenance of  way  and  structure  is  reviewed,  necessary  wastes  noted,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  easily  attainable  savings  in  the  consumption  of 
water  alone  would  amount  annually  to  $12,600,000. 

6.  Service  of  supply  savings. — The  expenditure  of  the  railways  for 
supplies  has  been  inquired  into  and  the  avoidable  losses  surveyed,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  the  wastes  and  abuses  amount  annually  to  not 
less  than  $75,000,000. 

7.  Shop  accounting  savings. — Attention  has  been  given  to  the  matter 
of  uniform  railroad  statistics  and  the  use  of  efiicient  methods  of  cost 
accounting.  An  annual  saving  would  be  feasible  to  the  amount  of 
$10,900,000. 

8.  Labor  turn-over  savings. — The  industrial  losses  due  to  un- 
necessary labor  turn-over  and  to  inadequate  training  of  personnel 
have  been  reviewed,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  avoidable  wastes  in- 
cident to  labor  turn-over  alone  amount  to  more  than  $40,000,000. 

9.  Loss  and  damage  savings. — Inquiry  has  been  made  into  the 
amount  of  the  annual  damage  account  of  the  railways  and  into  pre- 
ventable causes  of  such  losses,  and  it  is  estimated  that  an  annual  sav- 
ing might  be  effected  to  the  amount  of  $90,000,000. 

Other  alleged  losses,  he  says,  would  bring  the  total  waste  to  over 
a billion. 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  177 

be  beneficial  and  inure  to  the  growth  of  the  main  trunk 
and  remaining  healthy  branches. 

William  H.  Manse,  a member  of  the  Congressional 
Joint  Commission  of  Agricultural  Inquiry,8  has  called 
attention  to  another  economic  waste.  He  states  that 
“city  freight  houses  were  established  when  team  hauling 
was  the  only  hauling.”  These  now  are  the  cause  of 
much  congestion  because  of  the  delivery  there  of  tre- 
mendous amounts  of  less-than-carload  freight.  The  load- 
ing and  unloading  tracks  being  limited  much  of  the 
freight  must  pass  through  the  depot  necessitating  double 
handling.  Again,  in  the  large  cities  a considerable  per- 
centage of  land  in  the  business  section,  stated  to  be  from 
25  to  30  in  Chicago,  is  occupied  by  the  railroads  for 
tracks,  road  and  station  purposes.  This  land  is  worth 
from  $10  to  $50  a square  foot,  and  if  freight  cars  stand 
upon  it  intermittently  for  the  receipt  and  discharge  of 
l.c.l.  freight,  it  is  not  earning  continuously  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  spending  every  minute  in  interest,  taxes 
and  maintenance.  With  demountable  containers,  which 
are  described  in  Chapter  VII,  and  the  motor  truck,  and 
with  concerted  action  of  the  railroads,  much  of  this  high- 
value  land  could  be  given  over  to  other  business  and 
cheaper  land  farther  out  purchased  for  trackage. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  intimate  a firm  belief  that  the 
railways  as  purveyors  of  secondary  transportation  will 
persist.  On  economic  grounds  if  for  no  other  reason,  for 
no  cheaper  method  of  transportation,  except  by  water,  has 
been  devised ; and  secondary  transportation  over  canals 
and  rivers  ought,  for  the  good  of  the  country,  to  be  revived. 
There  is  a large  class  of  freight  that  could  with  proper 
management  travel  at  a slow  rate  of  speed  without  any 
detriment  or  inconvenience  whatsoever  to  the  public. 

Carve  Out  New  Fields  of  Usefulness. — It  is  quite  likely 
that  the  newer  systems  of  transportation,  by  inter-urban 
electric  railways,  by  automobile  and  motor-truck,  and  by 
air-plane  and  dirigible,  will  all  carve  out  for  themselves 

6 Report  of  the  Joint  Commission  on  Agricultural  Inquiry. 


178  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 

new  grooves  of  usefulness,  thus  opening  up  for  labor  and 
capital  new  fields  of  endeavor.  The  telephone  did  not,  as 
many  believed  it  would,  replace  the  telegraph ; neither,  yet, 
has  “wireless”  put  “wires”  out  of  use.  The  telephone, 
rural  free  delivery  of  mail,  and  the  automobile  have  al- 
ready put  new  life  into  agriculture.  Farming  has  rapidly 
reached  the  enchanted  plane  of  professionalism  and  men 
are  as  proud  now  of  being  farmers  as  they  were  formerly  of 
being  lawyers  or  ministers.  And  of  the  three  instrumental- 
ities named,  the  motor  car,  including  the  improved  roads 
it  makes  necessary,  has  probably  been  most  influential.  In 
return  the  farmers  have  supplied  themselves  with  motor 
vehicles  most  generously.  These  will  result  in  the  market- 
ing of  increased  quantities  of  food  and  products  that  prior 
to  improved  roads  and  the  introduction  of  the  motor  car 
it  was  unprofitable  to  raise  because  of  the  cost  of  transpor- 
tation, or  the  time  consumed  in  transportation,  or  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  reached  the  consumer.  This,  then,  is 
one  of  the  ways  in  which  the  motor  car  may  be  beneficial 
to  both  producer  and  consumer,  that  is  to  the  entire  public. 
In  the  more  thickly  populated  districts  the  dairy  interests 
practically  depend  upon  the  motor  truck ; milk  reaches  its 
destination  in  better  condition  than  when  hauled  by  horses 
and  wagons  or  when  delivered  to  the  railway  station, 
shipped  by  train,  and  hauled  again  to  the  distributing 
agency.  Also  in  regions  near  the  large  cities  vegetable 
gardeners  and  orchardists  are  becoming  more  and  more  de- 
pendent upon  the  motor  truck  for  the  rapid  transit  of 
their  perishable  products  to  the  jobber,  retailer,  or  even 
consumer.  During  the  railway  congestion  in  the  period  of 
the  war,  not  only  the  dairymen,  gardeners,  and  orchardists 
that  supplied  the  large  eastern  cities  were  saved  from  ruin 
but  the  consumers  themselves  were  saved  from  food  short- 
age and  hunger  by  the  motor  car. 

This  condition  is  not  peculiar  to  the  Eastern  states,  but 
applies  to  the  grower  of  perishable  products  near  every 
large  market;  it  also  applies  to  the  raiser  of  live  stock. 
During  the  congested  period  mentioned  there  was  difficulty 


Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation  179 

to  get  stock  cars  in  which  to  ship  hogs,  sheep,  and  cattle. 
Motor  trucks  were  seized  upon  and  last  year  there  came 
to  the  Omaha  stock  yards  in  them  more  than  200,000  head 
of  live  stock,  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  yards  are  said  to  be 
receiving  2500  head  of  live  stock  per  day  by  motor  truck. 
Sioux  City,  St.  Paul  and  other  markets  report  similar 
receipts.  The  record  day  at  Indianapolis  is  given  as  6800 
head  of  live  stock  delivered  to  the  stock  yards  in  500  motor 
trucks  from  a radius  of  50  miles.  Hogs  delivered  by  truck 
to  the  early  market  at  Omaha  are  said  to  be  in  much  better 
condition  than  those  received  by  train. 

In  some  sorts  of  transportation  light  automobile  delivery 
wagons  will  give  best  service;  this  is  especially  true  where 
the  distance  between  stops  is  such  that  considerable  time 
may  be  saved  by  rapid  transit.  In  still  other  lines  a horse 
and  wagon  may  be  most  efficient;  this  is  especially  true 
where  the  stops  are  continuous  or  nearly  continuous  along 
a street  like  a milk  or  ice  route,  and  where  a trained  team 
can  be  started  and  stopped  by  the  attendant  from  the 
street  by  word  of  mouth. 

It  seems  then  that  there  is  room  in  this  country  for 
various  kinds  of  transportation.  The  horse  and  wagon ; the 
light  motor  and  the  heavy  motor;  the  waterways;  the 
electric  railroad  and  the  steam  railroad.  Ail  should  work 
together  in  harmony  for  the  good  of  the  Nation.  The  little 
handwheel  that  opens  and  closes  the  throttle  valve  is  of  as 
much  importance  to  the  big  Corliss  engine  as  the  large  and 
more  spectacular  flywheel;  the  black  iron  foundation, 
grimy  with  grease,  as  the  bright  highly  polished  brass  band 
around  the  cylinder  lagging  darting  and  reflecting  beams 
of  light  into  the  eyes  of  the  beholder.  Each  has  its  own 
work  to  perform  and  if  done  well  is  deserving  of  equal 
honor. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Inquiry,  Report  of  Joint  Commission  on,  Published 
by  order  of  Congress,  1922,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Babson,  Roger  W.,  “Weekly  Comment”  of  September  30,  1922, 
Syndicated. 


180  Relation  between  Highway  and  Transportation 


Banham,  W.  J.  L.,  “Motor  Truck  and  Railroad  Freighting,” 
Address  delivered  at  Highway  Transport  Conference,  1920, 
published  as  a bulletin  by  the  National  Automobile  Chamber 
of  Commerce,  New  York. 

Blanchard,  Harold  F.,  “Is  the  Day  of  the  $150  Car  in  Sight,” 
Popular  Science  Monthly,  January,  1923,  p.  26. 

Brosseau,  A.  J.,  “Is  Highway  Transport  an  Aid  to  Railroads?” 
Commercial  Vehicle,  Jan.  15,  1922.  Also  published  in 
bulletin  form  by  the  National  Automobile  Chamber  of 
Commerce. 

Cabot,  Philip,  “Root,  Hog  or  Die : The  New  Englander  and 
His  Railroads.”  Atlantic  Monthly,  August,  1921,  p.  258. 

Chatburn,  G.  R.,  “Highway  Engineering,”  p.  5.  John  Wiley 
& Sons,  New  York. 

Crissey,  Forrest,  “Our  New  Transportation  System,”  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  December  16,  1922. 

Graham,  George  M.,  “Highway  Transportation,”  Proceedings  of 
the  Eighth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  United  States  Chamber 
of  Commerce.  “The  Motor  Vehicle — Competitor  or  Ally?” 
National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Green,  G.  A.,  “Motor  Bus  Transportation,”  Society  of  Auto- 
motive Engineers,  Journal,  1920. 

Johnson,  Emery  R.,  “Elements  of  Transportation,”  D.  Apple- 
ton  & Company,  New  York. 

MacDonald,  Thomas  H.,  “Federal  Aid  Highways,”  Proceedings 
of  the  8th  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce 
of  the  United  States. 

Norton,  S.  V.,  “The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  to  Business,”  Part 
I.  A.  W.  Shaw  Company,  Chicago. 

Riggs,  Henry  E.,  “Report  of  the  Committee  on  Interrelation  of 
Highway,  Railway,  and  Waterway  Transport,”  National 
Traffic  Association  of  Chicago,  N.  A.  C.  C.,  1920. 

Thirlwall,  J.  C.,  “Fields  of  the  Rail  Car,  Trolley  Bus  and 
Gasoline  Bus,”  General  Electric  Review,  Vol.  XXIV,  pp. 
974-985. 

White,  Windsor  T.,  “Benefits  of  War  Experience,”  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Eighth  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  VII 


AUTOMOTIVE  TRANSPORTATION 

Automotive  transportation  is  a matter  of  such  recent 
growth  that  only  a few  of  the  elements  entering  it  have  as 
yet  become  fixed  or  standardized — the  whole  question  is 
still  in  the  experimental  or  growing  stage.  The  next  few 
years  will  probably  see  as  many,  if  not  as  radical,  changes 
in  equipment  and  operation  as  have  the  past  few.  The  law 
of  evolution  seems  to  include  a period  of  slow  growth  or 
sort  of  weak  feeling-out;  then  a period  of  very  rapid 
growth,  developing  usually  along  several  lines ; and  finally 
a ripening  or  fixing  period  in  which  standardization  is 
reached.  The  automotive  industries  are  now  beginning  the 
third  period.  Revolutionary  changes  are  not  to  be  ex- 
pected, but  there  will  be  many  minor  ones  seeking  efficiency 
or  economy.  The  machinery  of  transportation,  the  motor 
car  and  the  roadway,  are,  perhaps,  in  a later  stage  of 
standardization  than  are  the  social  and  legal  phases  of  the 
subject.  The  relative  rights  of  the  people  on  the  street 
and  driver  of  the  car  have  yet  to  be  determined.  The  re- 
lation between  automotive  transportation  and  the  older 
forms  of  transportation  is  still  in  a very  formative  stage. 
Plans  and  organizations  for  operating  systems  of  highway 
transport  and  methods  of  accounting  which  shall  be  fair 
to  owner  and  patron  have  in  a large  measure  yet  to  be 
developed. 

These  things  must  necessarily  be  true  in  a new  and 
growing  industry.  Why,  encyclopedias  published  in  the 
’eighties  make  no  mention  whatever  of  the  motor  car  or 
automobile.  In  fact,  the  first  practical  automobiles  were 

181 


182  Automotive  Transportation 

put  on  the  market  after  1893,  and  trucks  were  not  sold  as 
such  until  1903,  ten  years  later.  This  was  about  the  period 
when  automobiles  were  being  made  over  by  change  of 
body  into  “business  wagons.”  But  so  rapidly  has  the  use 
of  the  motor  car  grown,  automobile  registrations  increas- 
ing from  about  one  million  in  1912  to  more  than  eleven 
millions  in  1922,  that,  so  it  is  stated,  80  per  cent  of  all  cars 
manufactured  are  still  in  use. 

Automotive  transportation  may  be  considered  to  include 
all  conveyance  from  one  place  to  another  by  means  of 
motor  vehicles.  A motor  vehicle  is  one  which  carries  within 
itself  the  source  of  mechanical  power  which  propels  it 
providing  that  source  be  not  muscular.  This  definition 
would  include  the  tractor,  the  road  roller,  the  torpedo,  and 
the  locomotive,  which  are  ordinarily  excluded.  For  the 
purposes  of  this  discussion  an  automobile  or  motor  car  may 
be  considered  as  a self-propelled  vehicle  which  transports  a 
burden  other  than  itself  as  a weight  upon  its  own  wheels. 
This  will  exclude  the  tractor  and  the  locomotive,  which 
though  self-propelled,  are  intended  to  draw  other  vehicles 
rather  than  to  carry  the  load ; also  the  road  roller  and  the 
torpedo,  which  have  no  burden  to  transport  other  than 
their  own  weights.  Some  definitions  would  confine  a motor 
vehicle  to  one  designed  to  move  on  common  roads  or  high- 
ways. However,  motor  cars  are  now  being  used  on  rail- 
road tracks ; they  are  entitled  to  and  should  be  allowed  the 
use  of  the  name.  The  automobile  may  have  as  the  source 
of  power  internal-combustion  engines  using  such  fuel  as 
gasoline,  kerosene,  benzol,  and  alcohol;  it  may  use  steam 
generated  by  these  fuels;  or  an  electric  storage  battery 
charged  by  sources  outside  the  engine  may  furnish  the 
propelling  force.  The  load  transported  will  either  be 
passenger  or  freight.  Passenger  traffic  may  be  classified  as 
business  or  pleasure.  If  a vehicle  is  used  mostly  for  busi- 
ness, first  cost  and  economy  of  operation  may  play  a more 
important  part  in  the  purchase  of  the  car  than  if  used  for 
pleasure,  in  which  case  appearance  and  luxurious  appoint- 
ments may  be  the  deciding  factor. 


Automotive  Transportation 


183 


Business  Passenger  Traffic. — All  machines  that  haul 
passengers  for  hire,  that  are  used  as  a means  of  perform- 
ing, promoting,  or  extending  business  relations,  while  so 
used,  may  be  rightly  considered  business  machines  and  the 
traffic  business  traffic.  The  physician  who  finds  that  he  can 
quadruple  the  number  of  his  daily  calls;  the  traveling 
salesman  who  can  double  the  territory  covered  and  do  it 
much  more  efficiently ; the  business  or  professional  man,  of 
whatever  kind,  who  uses  his  automobile  in  going  from  one 
place  to  another  in  the  performance  of  his  duties;  the 
farmer  who  comes  to  town  to  get  his  mail  and  information 
relative  to  markets  or  otherwise  to  assist  him  with  his 
farm  industry ; and  the  multifold  other  uses  which  are  for 
the  advantage  of  financial  or  industrial  enterprise  may  con- 
stitute a legitimate  business  passenger  traffic.  The  trans- 
portation, however,  by  taxi-cab,  jitney  or  bus  is  considered 
by  many  persons  to  be  the  type  that  should  be  classified 
under  the  term  business  passenger  traffic. 

Jitney  and  taxi-cab  traffic  are  of  vast  importance  in  the 
cities  and  are  of  real  economic  use  in  furnishing  a rapid 
means  of  transit  from  point  to  point.  The  jitney  is  usually 
a privately  owned  vehicle  not  especially  constructed  for 
the  business,  which  plies  with  more  or  less  regularity  over 
a route  that  may  or  may  not  be  sefi  out  in  the  owner’s 
license.  In  early  days  the  price  of  a ride  was  a “nickel” 
or  “jitney”  hence  the  name. 

Taxi-cabs  are  regularly  licensed  automobiles  that  carry 
passengers  for  hire,  usually  making  the  charge  dependent 
more  or  less  upon  the  distance  traveled,  which  is  registered 
by  a taximeter.  For  example,  the  charge  may  be  25  cents 
plus  15  cents  per  mile  or  fraction  thereof.  This  would 
make  the  charge  for  distances  less  than  1 mile,  40  cents ; 
from  1 mile  to  2 miles,  55  cents ; from  2 to  3 miles,  70  cents ; 
and  so  on.  The  driver  usually  turns  the  taximeter  up  to 
the  fixed  charge  plus  1 mile,  if  fractions  are  counted  as 
full  miles,  when  the  passenger  enters,  and  the  instrument 
adds  on  as  the  cab  travels.  Of  course  the  taximeter  may 
be  made  to  register  every  quarter,  every  fifth,  or  every 


184 


Automotive  Transportation 


tenth  of  a mile,  or  even  continuously.  A special  waiting 
charge  is  made  if  the  cab  is  held  by  the  passenger.  Taxi- 
cabs are  variable  in  form,  from  “flivvers”  to  limousines. 
Many  of  the  larger  cities  are  supplied  with  cabs  owned  in 
quantity  by  substantial  companies  which  put  on  a line  of 
cars  usually  all  alike  and  painted  with  some  striking 
feature  or  color.  The  larger  ones  are  limousines  seating 
five  or  seven  passengers  in  the  tonneau  and  one  on  the  seat 
with  the  driver.  Some  of  these  cars  are  almost  luxuriously 
fitted  with  fine  cushions  and  special  lighting.  They  have 
speaking  tubes  or  electrical  devices  to  signal  the  driver. 
The  drivers  for  the  large  companies  wear  the  livery  of  the 
company.  Taxis,  as  may  be  inferred,  have  no  established 
routes,  but  go  wherever  the  passenger  may  desire. 

The  motor-bus  is  well  established  both  in  city  and  cross- 
country traffic.  As  at  first  made  motor-buses  consisted  of 
special  bodies  with  seats  placed  upon  freight  truck  chassis. 
This  did  not  prove  altogether  satisfactory  because  of  their 
excessive  weight,  too  much  of  which  is  “unsprung.”  They 
also  have  a high  center  of  gravity,  high  floors,  long  turning 
radius  and  rather  rigid  suspension.  A bus,  to  be  efficient, 
durable  and  comfortable,  should  be  especially  designed. 
There  should  be  lightness  and  strength;  small  unsprung 
weight ; a low  center  of  gravity ; a flexible  control ; special 
transmission;  wide  treads;  ample  wheel  base;  short  turn- 
ing radius ; low  step  entrance  and  exit ; low  top  clearance ; 
curb  receipt  and  delivery  of  passengers;  ample  brake 
capacity;  and  high  lowgear  efficiency.1  Pneumatic  tires 
on  account  of  their  resiliency  make  the  bus  much  more 
comfortable  for  the  passengers  by  absorbing  shocks,  and 
for  the  same  reason  they  also  increase  the  life  of  the  car 
and  make  it  possible  to  travel  faster.  Cushion  tires  are 
next  in  order  of  merit  and  are  an  effort  to  combine  the 
durability  of  the  solid  tire  with  the  easy  riding  qualities 
of  the  pneumatic.  Tests  made  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads  show  that  the  cushion  or  semi-solid  tires  stand 

1 See  “The  Motor  Bus  Field  as  a Market  for  Trucks,”  Automotive 
Industries,  September  29,  1921. 


O p 


A MODERN  RURAL  PASSENGER  BUS 


© Underwood  and  Underwood 


A NEW  YORK  CITY  “STEPLESS  BUS" 


Automotive  Transportation 


185 


between  the  solid  and  the  pneumatic  as  regards  riding 
comfort.  With  many  bus  operators  a combination  equip- 
ment is  being  used — pneumatics  are  used  on  the  front  to 
protect  the  engine  and  gasoline  tank  from  vibration  and 
cushion  tires  on  the  rear  where  the  hardest  wear  comes. 

Buses  are  made  both  single  and  double  deck.  The  latter 
are  in  demand  where  traffic  is  large  and  also  where  sight- 
seeing is  an  important  item,  the  upper  deck  being  usually 
open  to  the  weather. 

The  fare  charged  by  the  bus  is  either  the  same  or  in 
many  cases  a little  higher  than  that  by  the  trolley  car,  but 
the  bus  has  the  advantage  in  that  it  can  travel  over  streets 
where  the  trolley  is  not  allowed,  can  usually  make  better 
time,  and  can  load  and  unload  at  the  curb,  thus  avoiding 
danger  from  passing  vehicles,  a matter  of  no  little  impor- 
tance to  timid  passengers.  The  trolley  car  is  able  to  haul 
large  numbers  at  a less  expense.  In  such  cases  no  passenger 
transportation  is  cheaper.  But  the  field  for  the  auto  bus  is 
wide  and  no  doubt  it  will  come  more  and  more  into  compe- 
tition with  the  street  car  and  steam  railroad  lines.  The 
former,  whose  single  and  primary  business  is  transporting 
passengers,  are  already  complaining  bitterly  of  the  inroads 
made  upon  their  business  by  the  privately  owned  auto- 
mobile and  motor  bus.  The  automobile  is  the  larger  factor 
because  there  are  more  automobiles  than  buses.  Since 
about  every  tenth  person  owns  a machine  which  can  ac- 
commodate from  two  to  seven  passengers,  one  can  readily 
see  the  importance  of  this  item  to  the  traction  companies. 
The  result  has  been  a falling  off  in  passenger  fares,  which 
the  companies  have  endeavored  to  offset  by  increasing  rates, 
and  this  in  turn  has  only  accentuated  the  trouble  by  driv- 
ing more  men  to  automobiles.  The  only  way  the  street 
car  can  hope  to  compete  with  the  motor  car  is  by  keeping 
its  rates  low  and  hauling  large  numbers  of  passengers. 
The  handiness  of  the  automobile,  going  at  the  instant 
wanted,  avoiding  the  usual  walk  of  two  or  three  blocks  to 
and  from  a car  line  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
journey,  the  consequent  saving  in  time,  coupled  with  the 


186 


Automotive  Transportation 


exhilarating  effect  of  riding  rapidly  through  the  open  air 
furnishes  a great  handicap  which  the  traction  companies 
will  have  difficulty  in  overcoming.  About  the  only  things 
the  street  car  has  in  its  favor  are  cheapness  and  dependa- 
bility. It  can  no  doubt  be  shown  that  it  is  cheaper  to 
patronize  the  trolley  than  to  own  and  operate  the  average 
car.  The  street  car  will  go  in  rainy  or  snowy  weather  when 
motor  cars  must  be  laid  up.  But  the  average  American 
does  not  count  cost ; he  thinks  more  of  his  own  comfort  and 
doing  as  his  neighbors  do,  i.e.,  being  in  style.  It  may  be- 
come necessary,  as  stated  in  another  chapter,  for  the 
public  to  take  over  the  street-car  lines,  run  them  at  as  low 
rates  as  possible  for  the  accommodation  of  those  who  can- 
not afford  motor  cars,  since  their  work  is  an  absolute 
necessity  to  the  community,  and  charge  any  deficit  to  the 
taxpayers. 

There  seems  to  be  another  feasible  and  legitimate  use 
for  the  motor  bus  which  may  help  the  street  car  companies 
as  well.  That  is  extensions  by  means  of  buses  at  the  ends 
of  the  car  lines  or  into  territory  not  well  served  by  them. 
The  bus  might  collect  passengers  from  an  outlying  district 
and  bring  them  to  the  car  line  where  the  trolley  can  take 
them  on  to  the  heart  of  the  city.  Thus  motor  buses  will  be- 
come feeders  rather  than  competitors  of  the  regularly 
established  traction  lines.  The  car  companies  should  at- 
tempt to  take  advantage  of  this  sort  of  thing,  using  either 
the  trackless  trolley  or  gasoline  motor,  as  may  be  thought 
the  more  suitable  for  the  situation  in  hand. 

Cross-country  motor  seiwice  has  proven  quite  feasible 
and  scores  of  buses  now  leave  every  large  city  for  the  sur- 
rounding smaller  towns.  The  bus  seems  to  negotiate  a 50- 
mile  trip  very  easily  at  a speed  of  approximately  20  miles 
per  hour  including  stops.  These  buses  or  stages  carry  from 
12  to  20  passengers  and  are  operated  by  one  man ; they  are 
well  sprung  and  equipped  with  pneumatic  tires.  For 
country  traffic  seats  cross  ways  of  the  car  are  much  more 
comfortable  to  the  rider  than  lengthwise  seats.  Their  use- 


Automotive  Transportation  187 

fulness  seems  to  lie  in  suburban  traffic  or  as  feeders  to 
railroads. 

Such  buses  are  also  largely  used  as  carriers  of  children 
to  and  from  consolidated  schools.  The  little  red  school 
house,  wherein  began  the  educational  training  of  so  many 
of  our  great  men,  of  which  silver  tongues  have  orated, 
whose  virtues  have  been  painted  in  poetry,  and  praises 
commemorated  in  song,  cannot  stand  against  the  superior 
advantages  of  the  consolidated  graded  school  brought  near 
to  the  pupils  by  the  advent  of  the  automobile.  Since  each 
consolidated  school  with  about  five  teachers  replaces  eight 
to  ten  ungraded  schools,  and  since  it  is  easier  and  cheaper 
to  maintain  and  heat  one  consolidated  school  than  eight 
ungraded  schools,  the  advantage  is  economical  as  well  as 
educational. 

Another  place  where  the  motor  bus  seems  extremely  well 
adapted  is  in  the  transfer  of  travelers  from  one  railroad  ter- 
minal to  another.  Railroads  contract  with  transfer  companies 
to  do  this  and  a coupon,  a portion  of  the  traveler’s  ticket,  is 
detached  by  the  bus-man  when  the  transfer  is  made.  To 
one  who  is  not  used  to  the  city  this  is  a great  convenience. 
In  the  city  of  Chicago,  through  which  many  long-distance 
tourists  pass  and  through  which  no  or  at  least  few  rail- 
roads extend  in  both  directions,  hundreds  of  such  transfers 
take  place  daily.  Passengers  and  baggage  are  thus  taken 
care  of  on  a through  ticket  with  despatch  and  little  incon- 
venience. 

Pleasure  Passenger  Traffic. — Vast  and  important  as  may 
have  become  the  business  passenger  motor  traffic,  purely 
pleasure  travel  by  automobile  probably  exceeds  it.  Of  the 
more  than  ten  million  motor  cars  licensed  in  the  United 
States  perhaps  80  per  cent  of  them  were  purchased  not  for 
their  use  in  the  business  of  the  owner,  although  that  might 
have  been  the  final  excuse  that  consummated  the  deal,  but 
for  the  pleasure  the  purchaser  and  his  family  would  get 
from  owning  a car.  The  great  car  industry  which  has 
sprung  up  like  a mushroom  during  the  past  quarter  cen- 
tury may  thank  the  people’s  desire  for  personal  pleasure 


188 


Automotive  Transportation 


for  its  tremendous  prosperity.  The  movie  picture  industry 
is  another  instance  of  the  same  character ; likewise  the 
newest  epidemic  to  attack  the  people — radio.  It  is  not 
claimed  that  these  have  no  economical  uses.  But  the 
business  and  economical  uses  have  followed  rather  than 
preceded  the  pleasurable  uses.  There  ^re  many  who  think 
the  automobile  fad,  like  the  bicycle  fad,  will  eventually 
wear  out  and  the  whole  automobile  question  settle  down  to 
a purely  business  basis.  Such  a thing  is  not  likely  to  occur, 
however.  The  automobile  is  a much  more  perfect  pleasure 
machine  than  is  the  bicycle.  The  knack  of  riding  a bicycle 
has  to  be  learned  and  requires  considerable  muscular 
exertion.  It  is  not  the  thing  a tired  person  eagerly  turns 
to  for  recreation  and  rest.  Anyone  without  exertion  and 
with  complete  relaxation  may  ride  in  an  automobile.  Soon 
there  comes  a desire  to  drive  the  machine;  then  complete 
relaxation  while  no  longer  possible  is  replaced  by  a mental 
effort  which  drives  out  all  thought  of  business,  all  care 
and  anxiety  regarding  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  The 
mind  for  the  driver’s  own  safety  must  be  confined  to  his 
effort  to  manage  the  machine  and  make  it  go  where  and 
as  he  wants  it  to  go — change  of  work  is  often  better  than 
complete  relaxation,  although  the  latter  has  its  beneficial 
effects  in  the  treatment  of  diseases. 

For  these  reasons  then,  if  for  no  other,  the  use  of  auto- 
mobiles to  eater  to  the  pleasure  propensities  of  the  people 
will  continue.  There  are  very  few  persons  who  do  not  en- 
joy an  automobile  ride — they  are  only  the  timid  who  fear 
accident.  The  recreational  and  pathological  benefits  to  be 
derived  cannot  be  overestimated.  During  the  recent  war 
the  Government  gave  much  attention  to  the  entertainment 
of  the  soldiers  and  endeavored  in  many,  many  ways  to  di- 
vert their  minds  from  the  serious  side  of  war.  So  with 
the  people  generally.  They  are  much  better  off  for  pleas- 
urable diversions  and  the  automobile  furnishes  these  in  a 
very  high  degree. 

If,  then,  there  be  included  under  the  head  of  pleasure 
passenger  traffic  all  not  purely  business  it  may  with  pro- 


Automotive  Transportation 


189 


priety  be  estimated  that  three-fourths  of  all  automobile 
travel  is  for  pleasure.  Considering  ten  million  automobiles 
in  use  in  the  United  States,  that  they  average  4000  miles 
per  year  and  carry  two  passengers  each,  there  results  a 
total  passenger  mileage  of 

10,000,000X4,000X2=80,000,000,000 


80  billion  miles.  A number  beyond  ordinary  comprehen- 
sion. The  passenger  mileage  upon  the  steam  railroads  is 
roughly  speaking  about  37V2  billion  miles,  a little  less  than 
half  as  much  as  that  by  automobile.  It  is  evident  that  all 
this  travel,  even  though  a large  percentage  be  local,  must 
affect  seriously  the  earnings  of  the  steam  and  electric  rail- 
way lines.  Since  75  per  cent  may  be  estimated  to  be  for 
pleasure  purposes,  it  will  not  be  possible  for  the  steam  and 
electric  lines  ever  to  regain  it.  The  people  who  do  the 
dancing  are  perfectly  willing  to  pay  the  piper,  and  even 
though  automobile  riding  cost  more  than  trolley  or  train 
riding  the  people  will  continue  to  have  it  as  a means  of 
entertainment.2  Most  men  who  own  cars  pay  the  expenses 
in  lump  sums  and  forget  about  them.  To  have  the  speed- 
ometer register  in  dollars  and  cents  instead  of  miles,  while 


2 One  method  of  estimating  cost  of  automobile  riding,  for  a 
machine  costing  originally  $1000,  which  having  a life  of  30,000  miles 
is  then  worth  for  scrap  $100,  may  be  given  thus: 


Original  cost  expressed  in  cents  per  mile 
(1000-100)100 

30,000  

Cost  of  repairs,  estimated,  

Gasoline  and  oil  

Tires  

Garage 

Interest 

Taxes  

Insurance 

License 


3.0 

0.5 

2.5 

1.5 


1.5 

9.0 


The  cost  is  about  9 cents  per  car  mile.  If  an  average  of  two 
passengers  ride  that  is  4%  cents  per  passenger  mile.  The  above  is 
merely  an  illustration  and  cannot  be  applied  generally. 


190  Automotive  Transportation 

it  might  be  a deterrent  on  the  use  of  the  automobile, 
would  “take  the  joy  out  of  life.’’ 

Freight  Traffic. — When  it  comes  to  freight  traffic  cost 
and  time  will  be  the  principal  factors  to  determine  the 
type  of  performance.  The  element  of  pleasure  is  here 
eliminated  and  only  cold  economical  features  remain. 
Already  horse  trucking  is  rapidly  disappearing  as  it  seems 
to  be  able  to  compete  with  the  motor  only  where  many 
stops  are  to  be  made.  In  large  cities  motor  trucks  are 
utilized  to  haul  packages  to  certain  districts  at  consider- 
able distances  from  the  store,  where  they  are  turned  over 
to  small  wagons  for  delivery.  Ice  and  milk  are  often 
distributed  in  the  same  manner,  thus  taking  advantage  of 
long  rapid  hauls  upon  fully  loaded  trucks  and  less  ex- 
pensive delivery  wagons  where  many  stops  are  to  be  made 
and  smaller  loads  are  to  be  carried.  Even  in  delivery 
service  some  merchants  have  by  carefully  arranging  and 
timing  their  routes  brought  the  cost  of  delivery  to  below 
ten  cents  per  parcel.  All  purchasers  of  goods  at  the  store 
whether  delivered  or  not  should  be  interested  in  reducing 
this  cost  because  usually  in  the  accounting  it  is  spread 
out  over  the  entire  turnover  and  charged  to  the  expense 
of  doing  business.  It  may  be  possible  that  in  a few  years 
horses  will  be  barred  from  the  streets  for  sanitary  reasons ; 
then  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  motors  for  all  sorts  of 
deliveries,  possibly  large  ones  for  hauling  to  the  distant 
districts  and  small  ones  for  the  house  to  house  delivery 
in  the  district. 

In  very  congested  districts  motor  trucks  are  at  a great 
disadvantage  because  they  cannot  be  used  at  their  most 
efficient  speed.  If  the  congestion  can  be  eliminated  or  at 
least  relieved  by  such  means  as  one-way  traffic,  paving 
parallel  streets,  removing  buildings  which  obstruct  passage, 
widening  driveways,  elevating  railroads  and  street  cars, 
supplying  overhead  crossings,  making  subways,  or  by  care- 
ful rearrangement  and  planning  of  terminal  facilities, 
warehouses,  and  other  accommodations,  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation in  the  large  cities  may  be  materially  reduced. 


Automotive  Transportation  191 

In  many  such  cities  public  service  commissions  are  study- 
ing these  questions  and  applying  remedies  which  will  allow 
motor  trucks  to  operate  at  a greater  rate  of  speed  and 
much  more  efficiently. 

Accurate  observations  of  motor  truck  performance  in 
city  trucking  business  has  shown  that  a large  part  of  the 
day  is  given  up  to  loading  and  unloading,  that  the  truck 
stands  still  so  much  of  the  time  that  the  cost  is  more 
nearly  proportional  to  time  than  to  mileage.  Since  certain 
charges  such  as  interest  and  insurance  go  on  whether  the 
truck  is  idling  or  not,  it  is  better  to  keep  it  moving.  To 
do  this  effectively  depots,  warehouses,  and  other  terminal 
facilities  are  provided  to  lessen  the  time  of  loading  and 
unloading.  It  may  be  wise  to  hire  an  extra  stevedore  or 
two  to  assist  with  these  operations,  or  mechanical  devices 
may  be  installed  where  the  saving  will  justify  it.  Usually 
there  is  not  only  a saving  in  time  when  a mechanical 
device  is  used  but  the  amount  of  expensive  manual  labor 
is  decreased. 

Among  the  practical  devices  used  are  removable  bodies. 
The  whole  body  of  the  truck  may  be  swung  by  means  of 
a crane  from  the  chassis  to  a platform  where  it  is  loaded 
or  unloaded  while  the  truck  with  another  body  is  pro- 
ceeding on  its  way.  Other  bodies  are  so  arranged  on  rollers 
that  they  may  be  readily  rolled  from  the  chassis  to  the 
platform.  Railways  are  also  taking  advantage  of  remov- 
able bodies  for  the  shipment  of  less  than  car-load  lots 
These  bodies  are  made  to  fit  a truck  and  also  of  proper 
sizes  so  that  several  of  them  may  be  nested  or  interlocked 
upon  a flat  car.  One  of  these  units  or  containers  may  be 
left  for  any  length  of  time  for  loading  then  rolled  upon  the 
truck  and  off  it  to  the  steam  train.  At  the  other  end  of 
its  journey  it  is  rolled  from  the  car  to  the  truck  and  from 
that  to  the  unloading  platform  with  a great  saving  of 
time  at  each  terminal.  The  New  York  Central  railway 
places  nine  containers  of  6000  pounds  capacity  on  one  flat 
car.  These  are  unloaded  by  means  of  a crane  in  less  than 
five  minutes  for  each  container,  or  the  whole  car  in  approxi- 


192  Automotive  Transportation 

mately  forty  minutes.  By  this  means  the  railroad  is  able 
to  take  advantage  of  what  has  been  called  store-door  de- 
livery. Instead  of  the  consignor  hauling  its  goods  to  the 
station  and  unloading  them  on  the  platform  to  be  loaded 
into  cars  by  stevedores,  transported,  unloaded  into  the 
warehouse,  and  the  consignee  notified  to  come  for  them, 
the  railway  leaves  a container  which  when  filled  is  hauled 
by  truck  to  the  railway  yard  and  in  five  minutes’  time 
placed  upon  the  car,  which  upon  reaching  its  destination 
is  placed  upon  a truck  and  hauled  to  the  consignee. 
Goods  shipped  in  these  containers  which  may  be  made  of 
steel  and  securely  locked  are  considered  just  as  safe  from 
predacious  hands  and  the  weather  as  in  a way  car,  and 
possibly  are  safer. 

The  demountable  container  which  is  rapidly  coming  into 
general  use,  and  which  has  for  some  time  been  used  by  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad  and  the  interurban  railways 
of  Australia,  consists  of  a large  steel  box  or  safe,  the  doors 
of  which  can  be  locked.  When  it  is  placed  upon  a 
steel  flat-car  with  sides  two  feet  high  it  cannot  possibly  be 
opened  as  the  doors  are  on  the  side  of  the  container.  And 
it  cannot  be  removed  from  the  car  without  the  use  of  a 
derrick,  the  top  corners  of  the  container  being  equipped 
with  hooks  for  this  purpose.  The  containers  have  a capacity 
of  438  cubic  feet  and  will  hold  from  6000  to  8000  pounds 
of  package  freight.  When  the  packages  are  locked  and 
sealed  within  the  containers  they  are  safe  from  fire  and 
rain  as  well  as  marauders.  One  flat-car  will  accommodate 
from  4 to  9 containers,  depending  upon  their  size. 

In  addition  to  the  safety  furnished  by  these  containers 
they  are  economical  in  saving  time  of  transportation.  Re- 
handling is  unnecessary.  The  transfer  of  the  entire  con- 
tainer from  truck  to  car  and  from  car  to  truck  is  very 
quickly  made.  The  mileage  of  the  flat  cars  is  thus  greatly 
increased — with  mail  cars  it  is  claimed  to  be  doubled. 
Expensive  packing  and  crating  is  avoided  and  the  checking 
at  each  rehandling  of  parcels  is  eliminated. 

Mass  loading  or  unloading,  whether  the  whole  truck 


Automotive  Transportation 


193 


body  is  swung  off  by  a crane,  rolled  off,  or  even  if  trailers 
and  semi-trailers  are  left  to  be  worked  upon  after  the 
truck  has  gone,  save  little  in  the  way  of  manual  labor. 
On  the  other  hand  they  require  the  installment  at  each 
end  of  the  route  of  special  arrangements  to  facilitate 
their  use. 

Another  class  of  devices  are  those  connected  with  the 
truck  itself.  For  example  it  may  have  a winch  on  it  to 
draw  up  an  inclined  plane  at  its  rear  such  heavy  articles 
as  pianos,  safes,  and  large  castings.  It  may  have  a crane 
with  a pulley  running  along  a central  beam  over  it  to 
facilitate  loading  and  unloading  heavy  boxes  or  other 
things.  A swinging  crane  is  also  used  with  some  trucks. 
On  others,  hoists  are  arranged  to  tip  the  body  backward 
for  unloading  building  and  road  materials,  grain,  and  so 
on.  Many  of  these  devices  make  use  of  the  truck  power 
for  their  operation.  Pumps  with  suction  hoses  empty  catch 
basins,  cess-pools,  stopped-up  sewers  and  flooded  cellars, 
pumping  the  fluid  to  a tank  body  of  the  truck,  whence  it 
can  be  hauled  away  and  dumped  by  elevating  the  front  end 
of  the  tank  and  opening  a gate  in  its  rear.  Devices  for  lift- 
ing and  dumping  coal  truck  bodies  directly  into  the  bin 
save  much  time  over  hand  shoveling. 

Still  another  class  of  devices  are  entirely  separate  from 
the  truck  and  may  or  may  not  be  connected  with  the  ware- 
house. For  example  a chain  conveyor  which  can  be  rolled 
up  to  the  back  of  a truck  elevates  barrels  and  boxes,  sand 
and  stone,  and  is  operated  by  a small  electric  motor  the  lead 
wires  of  which  are  plugged  into  a suitable  socket,  up  to  the 
floor  at  the  rear  of  the  truck  from  which  place  they  can  be 
easily  pushed  or  shoveled  to  proper  position.  Elevated  bins 
are  utilized  to  store  road  materials  from  which  the  ma- 
terials run  by  gravity  into  the  body  of  a small  motor-car 
which  then  goes  to  the  mixer  where  it  is  grabbed  by  a 
device  that  empties  the  body  into  the  mixer,  thus  saving 
much  handling  of  material. 

Many  special  types  of  bodies  are  made  for  peculiar  pur- 
poses. These  often  facilitate  loading  and  unloading,  for 


194 


Automotive  Transportation 


example  tank  cars  for  hauling  water,  milk,  gasoline  or  other 
fluids ; or  trucks  fitted  with  shelves  on  which  are  placed 
trays  containing  fruits  and  so  forth.  As  the  motor  truck 
enters  newer  fields  of  usefulness  multiple  devices  will  be 
developed  to  lessen  the  time  of  loading  and  unloading.  The 
financial  importance  to  both  the  owner  and  the  public  of 
keeping  the  truck  moving  will  no  doubt  lead  to  the  adoption 
of  these  devices  providing  they  are  practical  and  will  ac- 
complish the  desired  result. 

Traffic  between  Towns. — Wherever  the  roads  are  de- 
pendable and  passable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  truck  and 
bus  lines  have  sprung  up  to  ply  regularly  between  the 
towns.  The  length  of  haul  most  profitable  seems  to  be  that 
over  which  the  motor  can  make  the  round  trip  each  day  and 
have  sufficient  time  at  terminals  for  loading  and  unloading. 
Forty  to  50  miles  for  trucks  and  60  to  65  miles  for  buses 
seem  to  be  negotiable  and  double  these  distances  are  prov- 
ing to  be  practicable.  In  many  of  the  states  such  enter- 
prises have  been  declared  to  be  common  carriers  subject  to 
the  laws  governing  such  carriers,  and  must  secure  licenses 
to  do  business  from  the  public  service  commissions.  It  is 
but  reasonable  that  the  public  should  be  safeguarded  and 
these  concerns  be  required  to  take  out  insurance  or  give 
indemnifying  bonds  to  cover  loss  of  goods  to  shippers  by 
carelessness  or  theft  or  injury  to  passengers  by  accident. 
On  the  other  hand  the  licensed  motor  transport  is  entitled 
to  protection  against  irresponsible  truckers.  The  modem 
method  of  state  regulation  does  not  contemplate  competi- 
tion as  an  economic  factor  in  the  determination  of  rates  and 
routes.  The  old  doctrine  of  ‘ ‘ everyone  for  himself,  and  the 
devil  take  the  hindmost,”  is  certainly  most  wasteful.  This 
is  about  the  way  that  method  worked.  A starts  a bus  line 
between  two  towns.  After  he  has  run  it  a short  time  and 
built  up  a trade  B,  seeing  his  success,  decides  to  put  a com- 
peting bus  on  this  same  route.  Then  there  is  a period 
of  competition.  Rates  may  be  cut  and  speeds  quickened 
until  each  bus  is  running  at  a loss.  This  cannot  con- 
tinue indefinitely.  The  result  is  that  either  one  man  goes 


Automotive  Transportation 


195 


out  of  business  or  there  is  a combination  of  interests  by 
actual  coalescing  or  by  a “ gentlemen ’s  agreement,  ’ ’ so  that 
there  is  practical  monopoly  anyway.  The  modern  method 
is  to  regulate  all  common  carriers  as  far  as  rates  and  routes 
are  concerned  so  that  each  may  make  a justifiable  profit. 
This  may  be  tending  toward  socialism  and  away  from  in- 
dividualism; it  may  be  a violation  of  the  Darwinian  doc- 
trine of  a survival  of  the  fittest.  But  that  is  departed  from 
every  day.  Our  cornfields  and  gardens  would  amount  to 
nothing  if  the  weeds  were  allowed  undisputed  sway. 

It  would  seem  to  be  the  duty,  therefore,  of  public  service 
commissions  to  grant  licenses  to  truck  and  bus  lines,  to 
establish  routes  and  equitable  rates,  to  require  careful  and 
complete  accounting  and  to  make  public  from  time  to  time 
such  items  as  the  people  may  be  interested  in. 

The  Railway  Commission  of  the  state  of  Nebraska  was, 
perhaps,  the  first  public  service  commission  to  exercise  the 
right  of  regulating  highway  transport  (1918).  Colorado, 
California,  and  other  states  soon  followed.  In  California 
the  matter  came  upon  a complaint  that  adequate  service 
was  not  given  by  the  railway  and  the  decision  was : 

“We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  public  deserving  trans- 
portation of  freight  and  express  ...  is  entitled  to  a more 
expeditious  service  than  that  at  present  being  given  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  American  Railway  Express.  ’ ’ 

It  went  on  further  to  state  that  notwithstanding  their 
ability  to  give  service  the  evidence  was  to  the  effect  that  it 
was  not  given,  hence  motor  highway  transport  was  licensed. 

The  first  highway  transport  freight  rates  established  by 
the  Railway  Commission  of  Nebraska  placed  the  freight 
under  four  classes,  describing  103  items.  The  rates  were : 

1st  Class  20  c.  plus  (IV2  c.  per  mile  per  100  pounds). 

2d  Class  85  per  cent  of  the  1st  class. 

3d  Class  70  per  cent  of  the  1st  class. 

4th  Class  60  per  cent  of  the  1st  class. 

In  addition  they  established  rules  and  regulations,  standard 
bills  of  lading,  etc.  These  rates  have  since  been  rescinded. 


196 


Automotive  Transportation 


In  Colorado  two  sets  of  rules  were  adopted,  one  for  the 
prairie  and  one  for  the  mountain  division.  For  the  prairie 
division  the  minimum  charge  was  25  c.  and  the  mountain 
30  c.  per  100  pounds.  The  rates  for  motor  truck  hauling 
was  made,  for  the  prairie  division,  30  c.  per  100  pounds 
for  5 miles  and  for  distances  up  to  100  miles  graduated  5 
or  10  c.  for  each  additional  5 miles  until  they  reached  $1 
per  100  miles.  For  the  mountain  division,  the  rate  for  100 
pounds  carried  5 miles  is  36  c.,  graduated  to  $1.20  per  100 
miles. 

Motor  Bus  Traffic. — Suburban  and  interurban  motor 
bus  passenger  service  is  growing  rapidly.  Buses  accom- 
modating as  high  as  sixty  persons  are  being  used  on  the 
haul  where  the  roads  are  well  paved,  but  twenty  to  thirty 
seems  more  popular.  At  present  these  buses  seem  to  be 
well  patronized,  usually  bringing  their  passengers  to  the 
larger  city  in  time  for  business  or  shopping  and  returning 
them  home  in  the  afternoon  or  evening.  The  rates  of  fare 
for  bus  travel  are  about  the  same  as  those  for  steam  car 
travel,  or  approximately  4 c.  per  mile.  The  rate  of  travel 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  roadway  and  the  con- 
dition of  traffic,  being  usually  routed  upon  dependable  but 
less  congested  roads. 

Just  what  may  be  the  outcome  of  this  traffic  is  problem- 
atical. Can  the  buses  compete  with  other  forms  of  trans- 
portation in  fares  and  speed?  If  so,  they  will  survive; 
otherwise  they  will  gradually  discontinue.  Some  writers 
seem  to  think  they  will  not  only  live  but  will  eventually 
kill  the  older  forms  of  transportation.  Although  they  will 
no  doubt  take  over  very  much  of  that  transportation  it 
seems  highly  improbable  that  all  transportation  can  be 
taken  care  of  by  motors. 

To  and  from  the  Farm. — -Farm  trucking  seems  to  be 
firmly  established  and  very  much  if  not  all  farm  hauling 
will  eventually  be  done  by  automobiles.  Very  many 
farmers  now  own  their  own  trucks  and  the  number  is  con- 
stantly being  increased.  Glowing  statements  by  govern- 
ment officials,  reports  of  investigational  committees,  and 


Automotive  Transportation 


197 


propaganda  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  have  worked  up 
the  farmers’  desire  for  trucks.  A congressional  joint  com- 
mittee on  agricultural  inquiry  has  recently  stated  that, 

No  single  development  since  the  railroads  were  first  con- 
structed has  had  so  marked  an  economic  and  sociological  effect 
upon  productive  life  as  the  motor  vehicle.  Previous  to  its  ap- 
pearance the  economic  zone  of  transportation  was  sharply  de- 
fined by  the  haulage  range  of  the  horse  and  the  cost  of  such 
transportation. 

There  is  the  evidence  of  no  less  a person  than  Secretary 
of  Commerce  Herbert  Hoover  that  the  farm  motor  truck 
will  be  of  vast  importance  to  the  agricultural  interests  of 
the  country.  Here  is  his  statement : 

Fifty  per  cent  of  our  perishable  foodstuffs  never  reach  the  con- 
sumer because  the  farms  on  which  they  are  raised  are  too  re- 
mote from  the  market  at  which  they  are  sold.  . . . Forty  to  60 
per  cent  of  our  potato  crop  is  lost  each  year  by  rotting  in  the 
ground  owing  to  poor  transportation  to  market  because  of  inade- 
quate transportation  over  long  distance.  . . . By  motor  trucks 
the  farmer  will  be  able  to  reach  better  markets  farther  away 
than  now  by  horse  and  wagon.  He  will  be  able  to  spend  more 
time  actually  producing  on  his  farm  and  be  able  to  sell  food 
more  cheaply  by  eliminating  the  present  tremendous  waste. 
By  use  of  the  motor  truck  the  farmer  will  be  able  to  produce 
more  and  sell  at  less  cost. 

Some  of  the  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  the  farm 
truck  are : 

(a)  The  motor  truck  allows  the  farmer  to  haul  larger 
loads,  longer  distances  in  less  time,  thus  reducing  the  actual 
cost  of  haulage. 

(b)  That  he  can  better  take  advantage  of  market  fluctua- 
tions and  thus  be  able  to  sell  at  high  markets. 

(c)  That  a truck  on  the  farm  will  replace  several  horses; 
that  the  cost  of  keeping  these  horses  far  exceeds  the  cost  of 
keeping  a truck. 

( d ) That  the  truck  may  be  used  to  market  produce  while 
the  horses  are  busy  in  the  field. 

(e)  That  the  truck  will  allow  land  otherwise  too  far 


198  Automotive  Transportation 

from  market  to  be  farmed  with  perishable  but  better  pay- 
ing crops. 

(/)  By  means  of  trucks  the  farmer  is  often  enabled  to 
put  his  hogs  or  other  live  stock  on  the  early  morning  market 
in  less  time  from  the  farm  and  consequently  fresher,  gain- 
ing the  advantage  of  better  prices. 

While  there  may  be  some  question  as  to  the  validity  of 
all  these  assumptions  they  are  no  doubt,  in  the  main, 
correct.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates,  collected  data  showing  that  in 
1918,  the  hauling  in  wagons  from  farm  to  shipping  point 
cost  on  the  average  for  wheat  30  cents  per  ton-mile ; for 
corn,  33  cents ; for  cotton,  48  cents.  For  hauling  by  motor 
truck  the  average  costs  were:  wheat,  15  cents;  corn,  15 
cents;  and  cotton,  18  cents.  These  unit  costs  were,  con- 
sequently, reduced  to  less  than  half  by  the  use  of  the 
truck.  The  same  bulletin  gives  the  average  length  of 
wagon  haul  for  these  products  to  be  9 miles,  and  of  motor 
truck  haul,  11.3  miles;  furthermore  the  average  number  of 
round  trips  by  wagon  per  day  was  1.2  while  by  truck  it 
was  3.4. 

Whether  or  not  the  truck  on  the  farm  will  release  any 
horses  will  depend  on  what  determines  the  number  of  horses 
kept.  To  do  his  hauling  does  the  farmer  keep  more  than 
is  necessary  for  farm  operations  alone?  The  passenger 
automobile,  no  doubt,  did  release  many  driving  and  riding 
horses,  but  will  the  truck  release  many  more?  The 
thoughtful,  foresighted  farmer  usually  plans  his  yearly 
work  so  that  he  may  do  his  hauling  when  the  horses  are 
not  otherwise  busy.  This  of  course  limits  his  farm  opera- 
tion to  products  which,  like  wheat  and  corn,  can  be  stored 
indefinitely.  This  limits  also  diversified  cropping  which 
farmers  find  in  the  long  run  to  be  very  much  safer  than 
“putting  all  eggs  in  one  basket”  by  raising  a single  pro- 
duct. It  is  seldom  that  a wheat  crop,  a corn  crop,  a beet 
crop,  a hay  crop,  an  apple  crop,  and  gardening  crops  all 
fail  by  drought,  wet  weather,  hail,  or  other  untoward  events 
during  the  same  season.  Good  roads,  trucks  or  anything 


Automotive  Transportation 


199 


else  which  will  lend  assistance  to  diversified  cropping  are 
without  doubt  beneficial  to  the  farmer. 

Intensive  farming  of  perishable  crops  can  be  done  only 
where  the  roads  allow  daily  contact  with  the  market.  The 
truck,  because  of  its  more  rapid  speed,  will  widen  the  zone 
of  such  farming  very  much  over  the  old  zone  when  the 
horse-drawn  vehicle  was  in  vogue.  Because  of  the  risk  in- 
volved and  the  labor  necessary  the  net  returns  per  acre 
for  this  sort  of  farming  are  high,  allowing  small  parcels 
of  land  to  keep  a family.  As  the  distance,  or  rather  time, 
the  “fourth  dimension,”  from  market  increases  the  less 
intensive  the  farming  operations  and  the  less  net  returns 
per  acre.  The  community  as  a whole  is  deeply  interested 
in  widening  the  zone  of  intensive  farming  in  order  that 
more  people  may  profitably  make  a living  upon  this  land. 

Persons  who  are  not  familiar  with  stockyard  activities 
will  be  surprised  on  visiting  them  early  in  the  morning  at 
any  one  of  the  packing-house  industries  to  see  the  large 
number  of  hogs  and  other  farm  animals  arriving  for  the 
early  market  in  motor  trucks.  These  animals  have  been 
brought  from  distances  up  to  60  miles,  but  have  been  on 
the  way  less  than  three  or  three  and  one-half  hours.  Care- 
ful stockyard  figures  show  that  in  1921  more  than  6,000,000 
cattle  and  very  many  more  hogs  were  transported  in  motor 
trucks.  These  animals  upon  arrival  are  very  much  fresher 
and  show  less  shrinkage  than  those  that  have  been  driven 
to  their  home  station  and  loaded  into  stock  cars  the  day 
previous.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  top  of  the  market 
is  accorded  to  the  fresher  animals.  Also  for  short  hauls, 
say  up  to  60  miles,  the  transportation  costs  are  in  favor  of 
the  trucks. 

The  farmer  may  obtain  the  benefits  of  motor  transpor- 
tation in  at  least  four  different  ways:  (a)  He  may  own 
and  operate  his  own  truck.  This  pays  when  the  farm  is  of 
sufficient  size  to  keep  the  truck  reasonably  busy.  ( b ) Two 
or  more  neighbors  may  cooperate  in  the  ownership  of  a 
truck.  This  is  applicable  to  small  and  medium-sized  farms, 
(c)  By  patronizing  truck  lines  privately  owned  which  haul 


200  Automotive  Transportation 

products,  freight,  and  express  upon  a charge  basis.  ( d ) 
By  the  trucks  of  the  United  States  Postal  Service. 

Whether  or  not  it  pays  for  a farmer  to  own  and  operate 
a truck  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  farm,  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  the  commodities  hauled,  distance  from  market, 
character  of  the  roads,  and  the  loading  on  the  back  trip. 
A small  farm  could  not  be  expected  to  furnish  sufficient 
hauling  to  keep  a truck  busy  unless  intensively  farmed  and 
producing  commodities  which  require  frequent  marketing. 
Even  a small  farmer,  though,  might  by  hauling  for 
neighbors  keep  his  truck  reasonably  busy.  Or  several 
neighbors  may  cooperate  in  the  purchase  of  the  truck  and 
arrange  how  it  shall  be  operated.  They  may  even  form 
an  express  line  and  go  into  the  transportation  business  as 
a side  issue. 

The  parcel-post  service  has  been  very  successful  in 
handling  packages  of  produce  even  as  large  as  a case  of 
eggs.  The  post-office  department  allows  its  carriers  to  pick 
up  and  deliver  packages  along  the  route  the  same  as  letter 
mail.  Privately  owned  Rural  Motor  Express  vehicles  are 
also  operated  successfully  which  pick  up  and  deliver  all 
sorts  of  express  packages,  farm  produce  in  small  quan- 
tities, fruit,  butter,  eggs,  and  cream.  Trucks  which  haul 
nothing  but  milk  and  cream  are  quite  common.  The 
farmer  leaves  his  full  cans  of  milk  or  cream  at  a specified 
place,  usually  a platform  at  a level  with  the  truck  floor, 
on  the  roadway.  The  driver  of  the  milk  truck  picks  up  the 
full  cans,  leaving  empties  in  their  place.  Or  he  may  pick 
up  the  full  on  his  way  to  the  market,  creamery,  or  railway 
station,  and  leave  the  empties  on  his  return.  Such  routes 
are  both  privately  owned  and  cooperatively  owned  by  the 
several  farmers  patronizing  them.  Often  these  trucks  de- 
liver the  milk  and  cream  to  the  railway  in  time  to  catch 
a special  milk  train  into  the  city. 

Since  the  trucks  come  directly  to  the  fanner’s  gate  to 
pick  up  and  deliver  express  or  freight,  the  convenience  is 
much  greater  than  the  service  given  by  either  the  steam 
railway  or  the  interurban  trolley.  As  a result  the  trucks 


Vih'l 


HAULING  SUGAR  BEETS  TO  MARKET  IN  A MOTOR  TRUCK 


Automotive  Transportation 


201 


will  probably  be  patronized  when  the  railways  would  not. 
The  habit  of  sending  eggs,  cream,  and  other  perishable  pro- 
ducts daily  to  the  market  is  formed.  The  daily  credit  the 
farmer  receives  amounts  to  a considerable  sum  by  the  end 
of  the  month  when  he  collects  from  the  dealer.  Many 
farmers  much  more  than  pay  living  expenses  from  the  sale 
of  small  items  utterly  ignored  before  the  days  of  the  motor 
express.3  Even  the  farmer  who  owns  his  own  truck  could 
hardly  afford  a daily  trip  of  several  miles  and  the  time  en- 
tailed to  market  small  amounts  of  cream,  eggs,  vegetables, 
and  fruits,  but  the  express  man  by  combining  the  incoming 
and  outgoing  commodities  of  many  farms  can  without  much 
expense  to  anyone  do  a very  good  business  for  himself  at  an 
economic  benefit  to  his  patrons. 

If  the  farmer,  or  several  farmers,  desire  to  purchase  a 
truck  it  would  be  well  first  carefully  to  consider  the  ques- 
tion with  an  idea  of  finding  out  the  character  and  amount 
of  trucking  at  hand  and  then  purchase  a machine  best 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  The  kind  of  bodies  available 
should  be  studied,  remembering  that  he  may  wish  to  haul 
grain  on  one  trip,  hogs  or  sheep  on  another,  then  cream  and 
vegetables.  He  will  want,  probably,  to  haul  back  groceries, 
flour,  feed,  lumber,  hardware,  implements,  fertilizer, 
cement,  and  gravel.  In  looking  ahead  he  should  estimate 
the  increase  in  the  quantity  of  hauling  that  more  rapid 
transportation,  the  going  to  more  distant  markets,  and  the 
possible  raising  of  different  products  which  may  come  about 
through  the  owning  of  a truck,  will  bring  to  his  farm.  In 
this  connection  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chapters  on 
“Highway  Transport  Surveys”  and  “Effects  of  the  Ease 
and  Cost  of  Transportation  on  Production  and  Marketing,  ’ ’ 
given  later. 

Terminal  Facilities. — Railways  have  found  it  advan- 
tageous to  spend  enormous  sums  of  money  upon  terminal 
facilities.  Depots  and  warehouses,  garages  and  repair 
shops  will  be  necessary  if  truck  lines  are  to  prove  efficient 

' See  Bulletin  770,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Markets, 
“Motor  Transportation  for  Bural  Districts, ’’  Also  Bulletin  931. 


202 


Automotive  Transportation 


and  successful.  It  would  be  quite  feasible  and  profitable 
for  all  the  truck  lines  leading  from  a city  to  have  a union 
or  common  terminal  station.  Portland,  Oregon,  has  such  a 
station  owned  by  a corporation  composed  of  bus  lines 
that  operate  from  there  to  every  city  of  any  importance 
within  a radius  of  100  miles.  The  terminal  resembles 
a railroad  depot  with  waiting  rooms,  ticket  office,  an- 
nouncer, and  conveniences.  Buses  load  and  unload  on  a 
platform  at  the  rear  of  the  building  reached  by  a drive-in 
from  the  street.  Patrons  remain  in  the  waiting  room  until 
the  bus  is  announced.  Two  buses  are  sent  out  if  more  than 
enough  tickets  are  sold  for  one.  Under  the  present 
schedule  150  departures  in  21  different  directions  are  pro- 
vided for.  This  gives  the  farthest  cities  two  stages  per 
day  while  many  closer  ones  are  served  hourly. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  a terminal  station  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  above.  Another  is  that  the  total  number 
of  clerks  and  employees  may  be  cut  down,  for  one  clerk 
can  route  goods  on  half  a dozen  different  lines  almost  as 
easily  as  on  one,  and  there  will  be  no  competition  between 
lines,  except  by  service,  if  the  public  service  commission 
has  allowed  no  duplication  of  lines  and  establishes  rates. 
Much  of  the  freight  and  express  will  be  brought  by  the 
shipper  to  the  depot,  where  bills  of  lading  will  be  made 
out  and  charges  paid.  To  be  sure,  large  shippers  may  de- 
sire freight  to  be  picked  up  elsewhere,  or  small  express 
trucks  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  orders  for  this 
can  conveniently  be  phoned  to  the  central  office  and  direc- 
tions given  from  there  accordingly.  Similarly  one  garage 
and  one  repair  shop  may  easily  look  after  the  cleaning,  re- 
pairing, oiling,  and  fueling  of  several  cars  more  economic- 
ally than  could  each  keep  its  separate  shop  or  even  go  to  a 
commercial  shop. 

The  terminal  building  may  be  arranged,  if  desired,  so 
that  it  can  be  used  jointly  for  a passenger  station,  a freight 
depot  and  a storage  warehouse.  If  for  a passenger  station 
there  would  be  need  for  the  agent’s  office,  waiting  rooms, 
and  toilet  accommodations  for  men  and  women.  The 


Automotive  Transportation 


203 


freight  depot  is  a place  for  the  collection  of  freight  and 
should  be  arranged  for  convenience  and  rapid  loading  and 
unloading  of  the  trucks.  The  installation  of  devices  for 
this  purpose  may  become  advisable  as  the  amount  of  traffic 
increases.  Storage  room  should  be  provided  for  those 
articles  which  are  to  wait  some  little  time  for  shipment. 
A check  stand  to  care  for  parcels  is  a convenience  to 
passengers  and  furnishes  the  company  some  revenue. 

The  Social  Aspect  of  Motor  Transportation. — The 
change  from  poor  roads  and  horse-drawn  vehicles  to  good 
roads  and  motorized  vehicles  has  produced  in  society 
changes  quite  as  radical.  These  changes  are  not  entirely 
separate  from  economic  changes  and  one  cannot  always 
say  that  this  particular  thing  or  that  particular  thing  is 
due  to  the  automobile  alone  because  every  activity  in  life 
has  its  effect  on  every  other  activity.  As  the  waves  upon 
a pond  circling  about  the  point  of  shock  come  into  contact 
with  other  waves  their  effect  is  enhanced,  minimized,  or 
transformed,  and  just  what  part  of  the  resultant  may  be 
due  to  one  agency  or  to  another  agency  is  impossible  to 
decipher.  That  each  has  entered  into  a combination  with 
the  whole  and  affected  the  result  there  is  no  doubt.  For 
example  it  is  claimed  that  because  of  the  prevalence  of 
pleasure  riding  the  giving  and  receiving  of  dinners  and  teas 
have  very  greatly  diminished.  No  doubt  the  high  cost  of 
living  has  had  its  effect  also.  Clothiers  and  haberdashers 
complain  that  automobile  owners  finding  it  impossible  to 
keep  grease  spots  from  their  clothing,  are  now  buying  an 
inferior  grade  and  losing  the  art  of  good  dressing. 
Builders  claim  that  the  expense  of  buying  and  maintaining 
an  automobile  has  prevented  many  persons  from  making 
needed  repairs  on  houses  or  even  building  new  ones.  As 
people  live  most  of  their  leisure  time  in  the  car  a very 
small  apartment  will  accommodate  them  for  the  remaining 
time.  Fewer  books  and  newspapers  are  read,  it  is  claimed, 
and  there  is  less  attention  paid  to  the  cultural  niceties  of 
life.  People  go  riding  in  the  evening,  so  the  Sunday  even- 
ing church  service  is  not  attended. 


204 


Automotive  Transportation 


An  editorial  in  the  Nebraska  State  Journal  of  August 
31,  1921,  puts  the  matter  piquantly,  at  least: 

The  savage  determination  with  which  the  American  is  stick- 
ing to  his  automobile  despite  the  drop  in  his  income  is  an  occa- 
sion for  wonderment  and  no  little  irritation  with  a lot  of  us. 
For  the  sake  of  economy  we  may  have  to  exchange  our  seven 
passenger  for  a light  six  or  one  of  the  little  fours.  Beyond  this 
we  need  not  go.  But  the  farmer,  yelling  his  head  off  at  the 
fall  in  corn  prices,  what  does  he  mean  by  sticking  to  his  car? 
Your  mechanic  resisting  the  inevitable  fall  in  wages,  would  be 
well  enough  off  if  only  he  would  give  up  trying  to  ride  like  a 
millionaire.  These  merchants,  claiming  they  aren’t  making  a liv- 
ing, don’t  give  up  their  cars,  you  will  observe.  Why  pity  them, 
then  ? 

Thus  does  the  general  assumption  that  the  automobile  is  a 
super-luxury  impinge  upon  the  fact  that  the  automobile  has  be- 
come a prime  necessity.  You  laugh.  Well,  go  inquire  what  are 
the  other  things  the  people  will  sacrifice  before  yielding  up  their 
speed  machines.  A sharp  automobile  manufacturer  assured  a 
gloomy  harvester  manufacturer  the  other  day  that  not  only  would 
the  men  do  without  harvesters  rather  than  lose  their  cars,  but 
the  women  would  yield  up  their  very  chewing  gum.  Yea,  more 
than  that,  their  pretty  clothes.  Food  is,  of  course,  a superior 
necessity,  but  even  that  can  be  reduced  and  simplified  in  favor 
of  gasoline. 

As  to  houses,  we  like  to  be  conservative,  but  there  is  a perfectly 
obvious  disposition  to  put  house  shelter  second  to  automobile 
shelter.  That  is  why  the  house  shortage  isn’t  hurting  us  as  we 
expected  it  to  hurt.  The  people  are  in  automobile  camps.  Ob- 
serve the  sudden  energy  in  developing  automobile  camps.  They 
are  wise.  It  looks  now  as  if  half  the  population  will  have  de- 
serted houses  and  flats  for  their  automobile  tent  within  another 
year  or  two. 

In  winter  time  a corner  of  the  garage  will  do  well  enough  for 
a living  room  during  the  few  minutes  at  a time  we  are  at  home. 
If  Ave  insist  on  a separate  house,  then  the  tendency  is  toward  a 
very  small  one.  What  is  the  sense  in  maintaining  a big  house 
not  to  live  in?  That  is  the  Avay  our  minds  run  now.  This  will 
help  the  lumber  men  to  understand  why  building  doesn’t  pick  up 
as  it  should.  And  that  is  how  Ave  manage  to  keep  the  car  while 
incomes  fail.  It  is  done  by  cutting  out  such  unnecessaries  as 
houses  and  furniture  and  clothes  and  heavy  dinners. 

America  has  been  living  at  a fast  gait  on  its  nerves.  Isn’t  that 
Avhich  Ave  see  now  the  natural  reaction  from  the  nervous  over- 
strain of  fixed  habitation  and  the  relaxing  ways  of  the  nomad? 


Automotive  Transportation  205 

The  automobile  came  along  in  the  nick  of  time  to  furnish  the 
transportation,  and  off  we  go.  The  universal  gypsy  is  break- 
ing out  in  us.  This  isn’t  more  than  half  moonshine.  It  is  at 
least  half  solid  fact,  with  economic  and  social  consequences  which, 
whatever  they  prove  to  be,  will  be  important. 

The  above  editorial  indicates  that  people  are  beginning 
to  notice  the  social  changes  being  brought  about  by  the 
automobile,  and  more,  they  are  ascribing  them  to  the  auto- 
mobile. Changes  usually  come  about  so  gradually  that, 
like  the  hands  on  a watch,  the  movement  can  be  noticed 
only  by  comparing  what  is  with  what  was  some  time  pre- 
vious. 

Rapid  transportation  and  rapid  communication  has  ex- 
tended Broadway  clear  across  the  continent.  One  writer 
by  taking  an  automobile  tour  found  the  American  world 
extends  from  ocean  to  ocean,  that  the  hat  she  purchased  in 
New  York  had  its  duplicate  in  every  millinery  window  all 
the  way  across  to  Los  Angeles.  She  further  found  that 
the  people  between  were  not  all  “hicks,”  and  that  farmers 
did  not  go  around  with  alfalfa  on  their  chin  and  straws  in 
their  mouths  as  shown  in  the  cartoons  of  the  funny  section. 
Some  farmers  play  golf  on  their  own  pastures.  The  fact 
that  the  sack  containing  their  clubs  is  often  tied  with  bind- 
ing twine  is  of  no  consequence. 

The  social  intercourse  which  good  roads  and  the  rapid 
moving  automobile  makes  possible  between  neighbor  and 
neighbor  and  between  country  and  town  tends  to  produce 
a more  homogeneous  people.  Each  gets  the  view  point  of 
the  other,  which  reacting  modifies  his  own.  Factions  are 
largely  broken  up.  Tolerance  gains  sway  and  more  satis- 
faction and  happiness  results. 

High  wages  and  profits  during  and  following  the  war 
led  the  average  citizen  to  purchase  some  of  those  luxuries 
which  before  then  he  was  unable  to  afford.  He  has  had  a 
tasteof  a “higher  standard”  of  living.  No  wonder  he  objects 
to  a return  to  pre-war  conditions,  no  wonder  he  objects  to 
giving  up  his  automobile,  the  thing  which  has  furnished 
him  with  more  pleasure  than  his  previous  humdrum  life 


206 


Automotive  Transportation 


believed  possible.  No,  he  will  fight  to  maintain  the  new 
standard  and  new  living  conditions.  A social  revolution 
has  taken  place,  and  in  traveling  about  the  spiral  the 
world  is  one  step  higher. 

And  while  some  will  for  a short  time  be  content  to  live 
in  one  corner  of  the  garage,  as  the  editorial  writer  opines, 
the  natural  longing  for  a home  will  assert  itself.  By  the 
aid  of  the  automobile  property  will  be  bought  in  farther- 
out  district  where  lots  are  cheaper,  where  taxes  are  not  so 
high,  where  there  is  more  breathing  space,  and  healthful 
conditions  are  more  likely  to  prevail.  Men  of  wealth  can 
build  suburban  estates,  and  men  of  less  means  comfortable 
homes  leaving  the  downtown  apartments  and  tenements 
to  those  who  cannot  yet  afford  motor  cars,  and  many  there 
be,  more’s  the  pity. 

It  will  be  a good  thing  to  have  the  farms  near  large 
centers  of  population  divided  into  smaller  tracts  whereon 
by  intensive  cultivation  can  be  supported  many  families. 
Here  there  is  always  a demand  for  garden  products  which 
by  means  of  a small  car,  or  through  the  agency  of  motor 
express  lines,  can  be  marketed  daily.  It  does  not  require  a 
very  great  deal  of  land  to  support  a poultry  farm  from 
which  there  will  be  a continuous  income.  By  diversifying 
crops  something  will  be  coming  in  at  all  seasons. 

Good  roads  and  the  automobile  not  only  make  it  possible 
to  diversify  farming  but  make  the  home  life  in  the  country 
less  monotonous.  No  trouble  to  go  after  supper  12  or  15 
miles  to  the  town  to  take  part  in  civic  affairs,  to  attend  a 
lecture,  watch  the  movies  or  go  to  church.  No  extra  horses 
need  to  be  kept  for  these  purposes,  neither  are  the  farm 
horses  deprived  of  their  rest.  While  the  swift  ride  through 
bracing  air  rests  the  weary  farmer  after  his  day’s  toil  in 
the  fields  and  gives  new  life  to  his  faithful  spouse  upon 
whom  the  lonesomeness  of  isolation  lies  the  much  more 
heavily. 

Salesmen  have  in  great  numbers  provided  themselves 
with  automobiles  large  enough  to  carry  their  samples. 
With  these  they  can  make  many  more  towns  than  when 


Automotive  Transportation 


207 


they  were  compelled  to  depend  upon  trains  and  the  small- 
town livery  stables.  The  result  is  either  a wider  territory 
or  more  frequent  calls  upon  customers. 

Hotels,  during  the  summer  season,  especially,  if  located 
on  one  of  the  popular  cross  country  roads,  are  seldom  with- 
out tourist  guests.  Nina  Wilcox  Putnam4  states  that  from 
Washington  westward  the  “wily  tourist  will  always  wire 
ahead  for  rooms,  and  preferably  two  days  ahead.  The 
truth  is  that  the  best  places  to  stop  are  not  nearly  large 
enough  to  accommodate  the  crowd.”  Speaking  of  these 
hotels  she  finds  them  well  equipped,  clean,  and  well  cared 
for.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  automobile  tourist 
traffic  has  had  its  effect,  too,  upon  them.  Each  spring  they 
clean  and  spruce  up  with  the  idea  of  securing  as  much 
of  this  traffic  as  good  service  reported  by  the  camaraderie 
of  travelers  all  along  the  way  will  bring  to  them. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  country  people  going  to 
the  larger  cities  to  market  their  products  and  purchase 
goods  wanted.  It  is  not  considered  at  all  unusual  for 
country  and  small  town  people  to  auto  30  miles  to 
patronize  the  large  department  stores  in  the  city.  If  a 
trade  which  satisfies  both  trader  and  tradee  is  beneficial 
and  of  economic  importance  to  both  then  this  would  seem 
to  be  a good  thing.  The  selling  of  the  goods  is  beneficial 
to  the  store-keeper  because  he  makes  his  profit.  The  trader 
has  a large  variety  to  select  from  and  having  made  a 
voluntary  selection  is  satisfied,  because  he  or  she  may  secure 
exactly  what  the  city  cousin  gets. 

But  what  is  to  become  of  the  business  of  the  country 
store-keeper?  How  is  he  to  get  along?  The  best  thing  he 
can  do  is  to  put  upon  his  shelves  goods  of  a standard 
quality.  His  rents  and  overhead  are  less  than  those  of  the 
city  competitor ; he,  therefore’,  can  sell  at  a less  profit.  This 
is  so  true  that  the  writer  has  known  of  city  dwellers  going 
to  the  country  store  for  these  standard  articles.  Such 
interchange  while  of  economical  importance  is  also  socio- 

4 “A  Jitney  Guide  to  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,”  Saturday  Evening 
Post,  June  10,  1922. 


208 


Automotive  Transportation 


logical  in  differentiating  between  city  and  country  mer- 
chandising and  in  bringing  together  in  a new  way  the  city 
and  country  dwellers. 

Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools. — The  people  of  the 
United  States  have  been  justly  proud  of  her  public  schools. 
No  one  has  ever  considered  them  to  be  perfect,  but  the 
influence  exerted  upon  the  minds  of  the  growing  children 
has  been  wholesome.  The  very  life  of  a republic  depends 
upon  an  educated  citizenry.  With  thorough  education 
along  right  lines  there  is  no  reason  why  the  nation  should 
not  live  forever.  To  obtain  such  an  education  as  is  com- 
mensurate with  right  living  and  with  the  upbuilding  and 
maintenance  of  our  government  and  civilization  requires 
that  every  means  at  hand  should  be  utilized.  The  broaden- 
ing, informational,  and  unifying  influence  of  the  auto- 
mobile should  not  be  underestimated.  Edison’s  theory 
that  the  movie  should  supplement  the  textbook  because 
visual  education  is  remarkably  interesting  and  effective, 
needs  more  than  a passing  thought.  The  instruction  which 
the  young  people  receive  from  parents,  from  associates, 
from  newspapers,  magazines,  and  miscellaneous  books,  from 
civic  organizations  of  various  kinds,  and  from  Sunday 
school  and  church  cannot  be  overestimated.  Neither  should 
be  forgotten  the  vast  and  important  education  which  comes 
through  the  hard  knocks  of  experience. 

An  illustration  of  what  the  public  schools  may  do  for  the 
preservation  of  the  country  can  be  drawn  from  the  history 
of  the  Great  War,  the  worst  and  the  fiercest  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  During  that  war  the  patriotism  of  the 
people  shown  forth  with  undiminished  luster.  The  re- 
sponse to  the  President  by  the  citizenry  of  the  country, 
whether  of  his  own  or  opposite  political  faith,  by  every 
honest  organization,  public  or  private,  by  business  and  pro- 
fessional men,  by  Congress  and  legislatures,  was  all  but 
unanimous.  This  surprising  unanimity  was,  no  doubt,  due 
to  the  influence  of  the  public  schools.  The  public  schools 
have  always  inculcated  patriotism  and  loyalty,  and  these 
lessons  were  potent  as  was  evident  because  even  before  the 


Automotive  Transportation 


209 


draft  many  young  men  with  Teutonic  names  took  their 
places  with  others  whose  forebears  were  of  other  nationali- 
ties as  well  as  with  those  of  long-standing  American 
descent.  Therein  went  astray  one  of  the  guesses  of  the 
enemy,  namely,  that  our  Teutonic  citizens  with  their 
children  would  prove  more  loyal  to  the  “fatherland”  than 
to  democratic  America.  The  lessons  of  patriotism  the 
children  brought  home  from  school,  the  stories  of  Valley 
Forge  and  Yorktown,  of  Gettysburg  and  Appomattox,  were 
communicated  to  their  parents  and  penetrated  deep,  so 
that  only  a moiety  of  our  foreign  born  element  could  be 
classed  with  the  enemy.  Thus  have  the  public  schools  in 
this  great  melting  pot  of  the  world  been  the  conservators 
of  liberty. 

The  effect  of  the  public  school  upon  the  ideals  of  peace 
is  no  less  than  that  upon  their  state  of  mind  during  war. 
Every  day  examples  are  so  plentiful  they  need  not  here 
be  mentioned.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  it  should  be  made 
possible  for  all  the  young  people  to  come  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  public  school  learn  the  American’s  Creed, 
and  be  steeped  in  the  symbolism  of  the  flag  that  stands  for 
true  democracy. 

Changing  Concepts  of  the  Public  Schools. — Schools 
have  continually  had  to  change  with  changing  society. 
During  the  pioneer  period,  and  that  extended  through 
many  years  from  the  first  settlements  along  the  coasts,  and 
the  occupation  of  the  great  fertile  areas  of  the  mid-west 
to  recent  efforts  to  subdue  the  semi-desert  and  desert 
regions  of  the  farther  west,  the  schools  taught  for  a few 
months  only  a little  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The 
farm  and  home  life  supplemented  this  with  manual  labor 
and  the  attainment  of  skill  in  making  and  repairing  neces- 
sary articles  and  machinery  by  the  boys,  and  the  arts  of 
home  making,  weaving,  and  cooking,  by  the  girls,  thereby 
completing  a well-rounded  education  for  the  times.  But 
with  the  increase  in  population  there  came  a division  of 
labor  and  specialization.  This  meant  that  the  simple 
school  of  the  pioneers  could  no  longer  fit  for  life,  hence 


210 


Automotive  Transportation 


new  and  additional  subjects  were  added  to  the  currieulums, 
until  at  the  present  time  no  one  pupil  can  hope  to  complete 
all  the  work  given  by  the  larger  secondary  schools.  The 
changing  character  of  society  caused  the  earliest  private 
schools  to  be  transformed  into  semi-private  and  semi-re- 
ligious schools,  and  these  to  tax-maintained  schools.  The 
graded  schools  in  the  larger  communities  were  found  to  be 
more  efficient  than  the  ungraded.  In  country  districts  the 
advantages  of  the  graded  system  could  only  be  brought 
about  by  consolidating  several  small  schools  thus  enlarging 
the  districts  to  get  sufficient  pupils.  This  made  distances 
from  home  so  great  that  walking  to  and  from  school  was 
no  longer  possible;  pupils  must  be  hauled.  Considerable 
progress  was  made  in  such  schools  with  horse-drawn 
vehicles,  but  not  until  the  advent  of  the  motor  bus  was 
attained  anything  like  a practical  solution  of  the  problem. 
So  rapidly  has  the  consolidated  school  made  its  way  that 
now  there  are  more  than  12,000  such  schools  served  by 
motor  buses.  Since  a six-room  consolidated  school  will  re- 
place about  nine  small  schools  the  greater  efficiency  of  a 
graded  school  extending  through  a longer  school  period 
is  gained  at  little  if  any  increased  cost.  In  the  years  to 
come  the  results  of  these  schools  must  have  a marked  bene- 
ficial effect  upon  the  entire  country. 

Rural  Mail  Delivery. — The  development  of  the  Rural 
Mail  Delivery  and  its  relation  to  the  better  roads  movement 
has  been  touched  upon  in  Chapter  V.  It  will  only 
be  necessary  to  say  here  that  the  psychological  effect  of  a 
daily  mail  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  rural  districts  has 
been  most  remarkable.  Through  its  means  these  people  are 
no  longer  isolated,  they  know  daily  what  is  transpiring  in 
the  world;  they  are  thinking  of  the  great  questions  of 
finance,  politics,  and  what  not,  at  the  same  time  as  their 
fellows  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  nation  is  thus 
more  or  less  unified,  the  country  dweller  looks  and  thinks 
of  himself  as  an  integral  part  of  the  whole.  Rural  mail, 
telephone,  the  automobile,  modern  home  conveniences  and, 
now,  radio  telephony  are  rapidly  making  agriculture  one 


Automotive  Transportation 


211 


of  the  great  and  desirable  professions.  The  rural  home 
need  no  longer  be  a place  where  there  is  nothing  but  ten 
hours’  work  and  six  hours’  chores.  The  farmer  of  to-day, 
with  his  daily  paper,  his  market  reports,  his  books  and 
magazines,  his  furnace-heated  and  electric-lighted  house, 
his  automobile  ready  at  hand,  is  better  off,  more  independ- 
ent, and  should  be  more  happy  and  contented  than  those 
who  dwell  in  the  murky  city. 

The  Automobile  and  Health. — “Health  is  something 
more  than  strength,  it  is  a universally  good  condition,” 
according  to  Munger.  The  automobile,  by  inducing  people 
to  get  more  into  the  open  air,  may  be  considered  to  be  a 
prophylactic,  and  something  that  will  bring  them  into  that 
universally  good  condition.  The  forgetting  of  business,  the 
obliteration  of  household  cares,  the  unstringing  of  high- 
tensioned  nerves  by  a swift  run  like  a swallow  in  its  flight 
over  smooth  and  undulating  roads  brings  rest  with  relaxa- 
tion, and  cure  with  comfort.  Then  away  from  the 
mad’ning  crowd,  away  from  close  poorly  ventilated  rooms, 
away  from  foul-smelling  germ-laden  cars,  to  the  roads,  to 
the  hills,  to  the  country  with  their  varied  shades  of  living 
carpets,  with  freshening  winds  and  glad’ning  brooks,  with 
bees,  and  birds,  and  flowers  into  nature’s  great  laboratory 
where  are  brewed  nectars  and  panaceas  for  the  ills  which 
infest  mankind. 

But  all  cannot  have  automobiles,  pity  ’tis,  ’tis  true,  but 
all  may  have  the  benefit  of  fresh  air  and  the  style  for  an 
open  air  life  set  by  those  who  can  afford  to  drive  the  “red 
flyers,”  the  “quivering  arrows,”  the  “bear  cats”  or  the 
“poodle  dogs,”  have  been  followed  by  the  less  fortunate 
hoi  polloi.  Thus  outdoor  exercises  and  amusements  have 
been  popularized. 

While  motoring  may  not  be  the  best  form  of  exercise, 
may  not  bring  into  play  as  many  muscles  as  walking,  horse- 
back riding,  or  rowing,  say,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
not  many  can  have  horses  to  ride  or  boats  to  row  and  walk- 
ing is  too  slow.  Gymnasium  exercises  or  even  home  gym- 
nastics are  not  exciting  enough  to  keep  one  practicing,  so 


212 


Automotive  Transportation 


that  the  outdoor  life  of  the  present  day,  brought  about 
largely  by  the  automobile,  has  had  a more  wholesome  effect 
on  the  people  generally  than  perhaps  any  other  measure. 

Styles  of  clothing  have  kept  close  pace,  and  the  garments 
now  worn  by  both  men  and  women  are  both  comfortable 
and  sanitary,  allowing  freedom  of  bodily  movement.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  same  influences  which  induced  such 
hygienic  clothing  will  continue  and  that  never  more  may  the 
autocratic  demands  of  style  force  people  into  close-fitting 
uncomfortable,  unsanitary  wearing  apparel.  For  years 
hygienists,  health  reformers,  and  physicians  preached 
against  tight  lacing  for  women  without  results  until  the 
automobile  came  to  their  assistance.  Until  very  recent 
years  women ’s  long  skirts  have  swept  clouds  of  germ-laden 
dust  into  the  air  from  sidewalks  to  be  breathed  by  all 
passers-by.  All  men  know  that  their  present  dressing, 
while  it  might  be  bettered,  is  so  much  more  comfortable 
than  formerly  that  they  have  much  reason  for  rejoicing. 
Formal  dressing  except  for  an  occasional  party  has  almost 
disappeared.  In  the  summer  time  men  may  be  comfortable 
on  the  streets  without  coats.  But  the  women,  though 
more  responsive  to  style  changes,  now  go  the  men  one  better 
and  abandon  long  sleeves  and  high  collars. 

Medical  science,  always  alert  to  adopt  modern  improve- 
ments, was  one  of  the  first  to  take  advantage  of  the  time- 
saving benefits  of  the  automobile.  Its  universal  use  by 
physicians  and  surgeons,  allowing  them  to  reach  the  bed- 
side of  sick  patients  more  quickly  and  allowing  them  to  visit 
more  patients  in  the  same  time,  is  certainly  a pathological 
asset  of  great  value.  Automobile  ambulances  called  in 
emergency  cases  save  the  lives  of  many  injured  persons  by 
getting  them  quickly  to  the  hospitals  and  under  the  care  of 
competent  medical  and  surgical  attention. 

From  a purely  sanitary  point  of  view  good  roads  have 
been  great  agencies  for  health.  Clean  streets,  clean  pave- 
ments, and  clean  roads  are  much  more  wholesome  than  the 
mud  puddles  and  quagmires  that  formerly  served  as 
passageways  for  man  and  beast.  In  order  to  get  better 


Automotive  Transportation 


213 


roadways  drainage  was  resorted  to.  Ponds  and  standing 
water  along  the  side  of  the  road  were  done  away  with, 
at  the  same  time  obliterating  the  breeding  places  of  the 
myriads  of  mosquitoes  that  always  abounded  in  summer 
time.  Since  mosquitoes  are  carriers,  as  is  well  known,  of 
such  diseases  as  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  the  consequence 
has  been  a very  great  reduction,  almost  elimination,  of 
these  ailments. 

Again  just  as  the  use  of  the  horse  on  the  highways  has 
diminished,  so  has  the  summer  pest  of  flies  grown  less. 
The  favorite  breeding  place  of  the  housefly  is  horse  dung. 
When  nearly  every  house  in  both  city  and  country  had  its 
stable  with  a pile  of  horse  manure  by  the  door  flies  bred 
abundantly.  The  fly  has  been  convicted  of  being  a most 
energetic  distributor  of  typhoid  and  other  bowel  com- 
plaints, hence  the  distruction  of  its  breeding  places  will  be 
the  most  effective  means  for  its  extermination,  and  with  it 
one  of  the  most  virile  sources  of  contagion. 

Thus,  upon  analysis,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  influence 
of  the  automobile  extends  throughout  the  whole  domain  of 
life,  changing  and  modifying  nearly  all  social  customs.  It 
is  called  into  use  at  the  birth  of  the  babe  to  bring  the 
physician  to  the  bedside  of  the  prospective  mother.  It  is 
the  correct  equipage  at  the  wedding  and  starts  the  bride 
and  groom  upon  their  honey-moon  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  a 
happy  journey  through  life.  And  finally,  it  bears  the  re- 
mains to  their  last  resting  place  in  the  silent  city  of  the 
dead. 

The  Automobile  and  Crime. — But  not  always  have  the 
changes  produced  by  automobiles  been  in  the  interest  of 
better  living.  Criminals  and  those  who  verge  upon 
criminality  have  been  quick  to  employ  the  superior  advan- 
tages of  modern  means  of  rapid  transit  to  assist  them  in 
their  nefarious  work.  Automobile  theft  has  taken  the  place 
of  horse  thievery,  and  automobiles  are  used  daily  as  a means 
of  getting  to  and  getting  away  from  the  place  of  the  crime. 
Trucks  are  utilized  to  haul  the  loot.  Since  the  adoption  of 
prohibition  laws  motor  cars  have  been  seized  upon  by 


214 


Automotive  Transportation 


booze  runners  as  a convenient  vehicle  for  transporting 
liquor  from  one  place  to  another,  thus  becoming  an  aid  to 
“bootlegging.”  In  several  of  the  states  cars  used  for 
illegally  transporting  intoxicants  are  confiscated  upon 
discovery  and  sold  by  the  state.  Drastic  laws  also  deal  with 
operators  and  owners. 

Highway  robbery  of  trucks  hauling  goods  across  country 
is  reported.  In  New  Jersey  two  trucks  were  robbed  of 
$120,000  worth  of  merchandise.  In  other  places  express 
drivers  have  been  held  up  and  relieved  of  their  money. 
One  of  the  earliest  improvements  of  the  roadways  of  Eng- 
land was  due  to  the  prevalence  of  highway  robbers — the 
brush  and  trees  were  ordered  to  be  cut  from  the  highway 
in  order  that  their  might  be  fewer  lurking  places  for 
robbers.5 

Here  the  results  of  robbery  may  lead  to  interesting 
possibilities.  For  instance  if  the  trucks  above  mentioned 
as  robbed  in  New  Jersey  were  owned  by  the  shipper  the 
$120,000  is  a dead  loss  to  him  unless  he  had  insurance. 
Even  if  the  trucks  were  owned  by  a small  capitalist  he 
would  probably  not  be  able  to  recompense  the  shipper. 
Had  it  been  lost  on  a railway  it  would  have  been  paid  for. 
If  motor  shipping  is  to  continue  shipments  must  be  covered 
by  bonds  or  insurance.  Even  then  there  is  a loss  to  the 
public  when  outlaws  seize  a loaded  truck  and  drive  it  into 
wilds  whence  its  contents  can  be  disposed  of  at  leisure. 
Shall  truckers,  like  the  ancient  caravans  of  the  deserts 
maintain  guards  with  long  guns  to  fight  off  marauding 
Bedouins?  The  western  stages  of  some  years  ago  furnished 
employment  as  guards  to  the  quickest  shots  in  the  world. 
Is  it  the  duty  of  the  community  to  make  its  highways  safe 
for  transportation  or  must  the  shipper  take  the  risk  and 
employ  guards  and  machine  guns? 

8 The  statute  of  Winchester  enacted  during  the  reign  of  Edward 
I,  of  England,  provided  “that  highways  leading  from  one  market 
town  to  another  shall  be  enlarged,  where  woods,  hedges  or  dykes  be,  so 
that  there  be  neither  dyke,  tree  nor  bush,  whereby  a man  may  lurk 
to  do  hurt,  within  two  hundred  foot  on  the  one  side  and  two  hundred 
foot  on  the  other  side  of  the  way.  ’ ’ 


Automotive  Transportation 


215 


Vandalism. — Complaints  are  made  that  those  who  drive 
or  walk  to  the  country  are  often  guilty  of  vandalism  and 
disregard  for  the  rights  of  property.  Note  this  editorial 
utterance  in  the  Saturday  Evening  Post  of  June  17,  1922 :6 

On  Sunday  one  dare  not  leave  one’s  farm  or  country  place 
unwatched  or  unprotected  for  a moment.  The  whole  country- 
side is  aswarm  with  Nature  lovers  from  the  near  by  city.  First 
come  the  makers  of  forbidden  beverages,  trooping  across  fields 
and  lawns,  picking  the  once  despised  dandelion  and  anything  else 
that  happens  to  be  loose;  then  the  happy  motorists  in  long  pro- 
cession, embowering  their  cars  in  the  spoil  of  orchards,  wood- 
lands, and  wayside  shrubberies.  If  there  are  no  flowers  near  the 
road  these  free-and-easy  visitors  will  penetrate  one’s  garden  and 
break  off  the  blooming  branches  of  the  rhododendrons  or  lilacs 
or  whatever  other  bush  happens  to  engage  their  fancy.  With 
trowel  and  spade  the  woods  are  looted  and  sometimes,  if  it  looks 
safe,  an  unwatched  garden.  Following  come  shy  maidens,  in 
twos  and  threes,  daintily  pulling  up  the  woodland  flowers  by  the 
roots — arbutus,  azalea,  and  a hundred  little  blossoms  that  wilt 
in  the  hand  that  picks  them;  and  everywhere  are  bands  of  half- 
grown  hoodlums  helping  in  the  spoiling  of  the  countryside. 

The  bolder  spirits  are  usually  those  who  come  in  motors. 
They  can  destroy  more,  steal  more,  and  get  away  faster  than  the 
man  on  foot.  They  meet  remonstrance  with  effrontery  and  resent 
the  notion  that  a hick  has  any  rights  of  property  and  privacy 
that  they  are  bound  to  respect.  The  flowers,  the  shrubs,  the 
orchards,  and  occasionally  the  unguarded  gardens  are  their  prey. 
They  camp  beside  the  woodland  brook  or  the  shaded  spring,  hack 
the  trees,  trample  the  flowers,  and  turn  the  spot  into  a garbage 
hole  with  their  greasy  papers,  tin  cans,  bottles  and  refuse  food. 
Then  up  and  away  to  the  snug  flat  in  the  big  town,  throwing 
out  the  wilted  flowers  as  they  go. 

Spooning  in  automobiles  parked  along  the  roadways  is 
a subject  of  regulation  in  the  city  of  Omaha.  An  ordinance 
makes  it  a misdemeanor  subject  to  fine. 

However,  the  motor  car  will  not  be  discarded  or  outlawed 
because  unscrupulous  persons  put  it  to  illegal  and  immoral 
purposes.  A net  cast  into  the  sea  gathers  fishes  of  every 
kind,  and  among  the  wheat  there  will  always  spring  up 
tares. 

6 Reprinted  by  permission  from  The  Saturday  'Evening  Post, 
Copyright  1922,  by  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


216 


Automotive  Transportation 


Conclusion. — The  world  cannot  now  get  along  without 
the  motor  car.  What  was  a luxury  yesterday  has  become 
a necessity  to-day.  Automotive  transportation  is  carving 
out  a path  for  itself.  While  it  perhaps  will  take  much  from 
the  older  forms  of  transportation  it  can  never  hope  to  sup- 
plant them.  The  final  result  will  come  only  after  the  world 
has  had  opportunity  through  competitive  experience  to 
determine  which  is  most  economical  in  time  and  money  and 
which  is  most  desirable  and  comfortable  from  a personal  or 
a sociological  standpoint  for  the  various  purposes  and 
various  kinds  of  transportation. 

At  present  it  would  seem  as  though  the  automobile  will 
be  used  more  largely  than  ever : I.  As  a pleasure  and  busi- 
ness vehicle  driven  by  its  owner  for  passenger  traffic : (a) 
for  local  travel  near  home;  ( b ) for  short  runs  from  town 
to  town;  (c)  for  more  extended  tourist  traffic,  and  ( d ) for 
the  use  of  salesmen.  II.  For  pay  passenger  traffic:  (a) 
Taxi-cabs  in  the  cities:  ( b ) Mot  or -bus  service  in  the  cities 
either  in  competition  or  in  conjunction  with  street  car  ser- 
vice; (c)  motor  bus  service  to  suburban  and  outlying  dis- 
tricts; ( d ) motor  bus  service  between  towns  up  to  75  or 
100  miles,  with  towns  not  more  than  two  hours  apart,  (e) 
motor  bus  service  between  railway  terminals.  III.  For 
freight  and  express  traffic:  (a)  Haulage  of  farm  products 
to  market  or  shipping  point  in  owner’s  truck;  (b) Haulage 
to  market  of  perishable  farm  products  in  rapid  going 
privately  or  cooperatively  owned  trucks;  (c)  Heavy  truck- 
ing lines  through  farm  districts;  ( d ) Light  express  lines 
through  farm  districts;  ( e ) Suburban  or  radial  distribu- 
tion of  goods  from  large  cities;  (/)  Short-haul  traffic  be- 
tween towns;  (p)  Short  branch-line  or  stub-end  transporta- 
tion to  be  taken  over  by  trucks  either  in  competition  or 
conjunction  with  railways;  (7i)  Trap  car  and  store  to  door 
service  by  railways ; (i)  Terminal  distribution  allowing 
cars  to  be  loaded  and  unloaded  at  a greater  distance  from 
congested  centers;  ( j ) Terminal  distribution  between  dif- 
ferent lines  of  railway  or  between  railway  and  waterway 
either  to  relieve  congestion  or  where  there  is  no  physical 


Automotive  Transportation 


217 


connection;  ( k ) Longer  hauls  where  there  are  no  rail 
facilities;  (?)  Logging  and  lumbering  formerly  done  by 
horses,  oxen,  or  even  light  railway,  (m)  Rural  mail  service, 
and  IV.  By  modified  or  combination  motors:  (a)  Track- 
less trolley ; ( b ) Rail  motors. 

Addendum. — Since  the  above  was  written  President 
Harding  has  issued  the  annual  legislative  message  to  Con- 
gress (December  8,  1922),  in  which  he  discusses  at  some 
length  the  transportation  problem  in  the  United  States. 
Among  other  things  he  says : 

Manifestly,  we  have  need  to  begin  on  plans  to  coordinate  all 
transportation  facilities.  We  should  more  effectively  connect 
up  our  rail  lines  with  our  carriers  by  sea.  We  ought  to  reap 
some  benefit  from  the  hundreds  of  millions  expended  on  inland 
waterways,  proving  our  capacity  to  utilize  as  well  as  to  expend. 
We  ought  to  turn  the  motor  truck  into  a rail  feeder  and  dis- 
tributor instead  of  a destroying  competitor. 

It  would  be  folly  to  ignore  that  we  live  in  a motor  age.  The 
motor  car  reflects  our  standard  of  living  and  gauges  the  speed 
of  our  present-day  life.  This  transportation  problem  cannot 
be  waived  aside.  The  demand  for  lowered  costs  on  farm  products 
and  basic  materials  cannot  be  ignored.  . . . 

Government  operation  does  not  afford  the  cure.  It  was  gov- 
ernment operation  which  brought  to  us  the  very  order  of  things 
against  which  we  now  rebel,  and  we  are  still  liquidating  the 
costs  of  that  supreme  folly. 

Surely  the  genius  of  the  railway  builders  has  not  become 
extinct  among  the  railway  managers.  New  economies,  new 
efficiencies  in  cooperation  must  be  found.  The  fact  that  labor 
takes  50  to  60  per  cent  of  total  railway  earnings  makes  limita- 
tions within  which  to  effect  economies  very  difficult  but  the 
demand  is  no  less  insistent  on  that  account. 

The  President  then  urged  merger  of  railroads,  pooling 
of  equipment  and  a central  agency  to  aid  in  their  financ- 
ing and  to  suggest  economies.  This  portion  of  his 
message  was  evidently  inspired  by  the  great  labor  strike 
during  the  summer  of  1922,  and  the  subsequent  short- 
age of  cars  and  inadequacy  of  transportation  facilities. 
He  argued  that  there  “should  be  a guaranty  against  sus- 
pended operation.  The  public  must  be  spared  even  the 
threat  of  discontinued  service.”  He  then  recommended 


218 


Automotive  Transportation 


an  abolition  of  the  Labor  Board  as  not  being  “so  con- 
stituted as  best  to  serve  the  public  interest.”  This  board 
is  composed  of  three  members  selected  by  the  railways 
and  three  by  railway  employees,  and  three  by  the  Gov- 
ernment. According  to  President  Harding  “it  is  in- 
evitable that  the  partisan  viewpoint  is  maintained 
throughout  hearings  and  in  decisions  handed  down.  Only 
the  public  group  of  three  is  free  to  function  in  unbiased 
decisions.”  He,  therefore,  suggested  the  abolishment  of 
the  partisan  membership  and  that  the  work  of  the  board 
be  performed  by  or  in  very  close  contact  with  the  Inter- 
State  Commerce  Commission  which  already  has  supreme 
authority  in  rate  making  to  which  “wage  cost  bears  an 
indissoluble  relationship.  ’ ’ 

When  a president  of  the  United  States  takes  up  so 
much  of  his  annual  message  with  transportation  and  the 
relationship  which  the  different  forms  bear  to  each  other, 
when  he  argues  for  harmony  between  them  and  between 
them  and  their  employees,  there  is  certainly  reason  for 
study  and  legislation  which  will  bring  about  just  and 
adequate  methods  of  administration,  operation  and 
regulation. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Inquiry,  Report  of  Joint  Commission  on,  Part  III 
deals  with  Transportation,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1922. 

Alden,  H.  W.,  “Automotive  Obligations  Toward  Highway  De- 
velopment, Journal  of  the  Society  of  Automotive  Engineers, 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  161-162,  426-432. 

Automotive  Industries. — “Automobile  Sendee  Stations,”  Vol. 
XLVII,  pp.  374-175;  “Automobiles  in  Postal  Sendee,”  178- 
179 ; “Cost  of  Operation  of  Bus  Lines,”  482^183 ; “Motor 
Trucks  on  the  Farm,”  315;  “Railroad  Officials  Recognize 
Truck  as  Transportation  Ally,”  Vol.  XLIII,  1201-1203. 

Baker,  C.  W.,  “Relative  Economy  of  Truck  and  Railway,” 
Engineering  News-Record,  Vol.  LXXXIII,  pp.  52-67. 

Bassett,  W.  R.,  “Avoiding  Industrial  Traffic,”  Industrial  Man- 
agement, Vol.  XLI,  pp.  342-346. 


Automotive  Transportation 


219 


Blanchard,  A.  H.,  “Traffic  and  Transportation,”  Canadian  En- 
gineer, Yol.  XL,  pp.  129-131. 

Blum,  H.,  “Transportation  of  Bulk  Freight,”  Kali,  Halle,  Ger- 
many. 

Bus  Transportation. — “Baltimore  Service,”  Yol.  I,  p.  484; 
“Motor  Buses,”  479-80 ; “Bus  and  Electric  Railways  as 
Essentials  in  Transportation,  by  G.  A.  Green,  293-295; 
“Battle  of  the  Bus  and  the  Street  Car,”  by  F.  H.  Warren, 
85-88 ; “New  Englanders  Hold  Meeting  to  Study  Motor  Bus 
and  Trackless  Trolley,”  124-129,  191-193 ; “Railway  Men 
Discuss  the  Bus  and  its  Relation  to  Rail  Transportation,” 
195-196^ 

Davis,  F.  W.,  “Motor  Truck  Transportation,”  Engineering  News- 
Record,  Vol.  LXXXV,  pp.  1194-1195. 

Donnelly,  William  T.,  “Comparison  of  Cargo  Transportation,” 
Marine  Engineering,  Vol.  XXV,  pp.  899-903. 

Engineering. — “Bringing  the  Food  to  the  Table,”  Vol.  VI,  pp. 
387-391. 

Electric  Railway  Journal. — “Report  of  Committee  on  Trackless 
Trolley  Transportation  to  the  American  Electric  Railway 
Association,”  Vol.  LX,  pp.  576-577;  “Freight  and  Motor 
Truck  Competition,”  Vol.  LVI,  pp.  157-160. 

Development  of  the  Automobile: 

Hiscock,  Gardner  D.,  “Horseless  Vehicles,”  Norman  W. 

Henley  & Co.,  New  York,  1901. 

Homans,  James  E.,  “Self-Propelled  Vehicles,”  Theo.  Audel 
& Company,  New  York,  1902. 

“History  of  Automobile  Carriages,”  reprinted  from  La 
Nature  by  the  Scientific  American,  Vol.  LXXII,  p.  389, 
June  22,  1895. 

Many  other  articles  in  the  Scientific  American,  some  of 
which  are : “Ponchain’s  Electric  Carriage,”  Vol.  LXX, 

p.  69;  “The  Tachocycle,”  p.  181;  “Gaillardet’s  Steam 
Carriage,”  p.  200;  “Simonds’  Steam  Wagon,”  p.  398; 
“Bicycle  of  1816,”  Vol.  LXVII,  p.  180;  An  Account 
of  an  automobile  race  from  Paris  to  Bordeaux  with 
descriptions  of  some  of  the  machines  participating, 
LXXIII,  p.  40 ; “An  English  Horseless  Carriage  of 
1827,”  p.  214;  “Duryea  Motor  Wagon,”  p.  293; 
“Petrolium  Tricycle,”  p.  234;  “Kane-Pennington  Vic- 
toria,” p.  293 ; “The  Benz  Motocycle,”  p.  315 ; De  La 
Vergne  Motor  Drag,”  p.  377 ; “Steam  Omnibus  in 
London,  1833,”  p.  404. 

Firestone  Ship  by  Truck  Bureau,  Bulletin  No.  6,  “Consolidated 
Rural  Schools  and  the  Motor  Truck”;  Bulletin  No.  7,  “The 
Motor  Truck  Terminal.”  Akron,  Ohio. 


220 


Automotive  Transportation 


Facts  and  Figures,  1922.  “Motor  Bus  Aids  Rural  Education,” 
National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York. 
Greenough,  M.  B.,  “Motor  Trucks  and  Highway  Transporta- 
tion,” Engineering  and  Contracting,  Yol.  XLIX,  pp. 
157-158. 

Johnson,  Emory  R.,  “Elements  of  Transportation,”  D.  Apple- 
ton  & Co.,  New  York,  1909. 

Lacy,  V.  E.,  “Inland  Waterway  Transportation,”  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,”  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  59-62. 
Lane,  F.  Van  Zant,  “Motor  Truck  Transportation,”  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  New  York,  1922. 

Mackall,  J.  N.,  “Motor  Bus  as  a Factor  in  Highway  Trans- 
port,” Engineering  News-Record,  Vol.  LXXXIII,  p.  234. 
Mantell,  John  J.,  “Transportation  Problems  of  the  Metro- 
politan District,”  Official  Proceedings  of  the  New  York 
Railroad  Club,  Vol.  XXXI,  pp.  6369-6393. 

Mechanical  Engineering. — Discussion  on  Motor  Truck  Transpor- 
tation, Inland  Waterways,  etc.,  Vol.  XLIII,  pp.  181-183. 
Motor  Rail  Cars: 

Railway  Review. — Vol.  LXIX,  pp.  753-755,  792-796;  860, 
Vol.  LXX,  49-50,  191-192,  389-392,  501,  656,  669- 
673,  741-747,  928-929,  930. 

Railway  Age. — Vol.  LXXI,  pp.  841-843,  Vol.  LXXII,  pp. 

749-750,  886,  920,  1008-1009,  1069-1070,  1183-1184. 
Electric  Railway  Journal. — Vol.  LXIX,  pp.  419,  513, 
685-686. 

Municipal  Engineering. — “Text  of  Colorado  Decision  Affecting 
Commercial  Use  of  Highways.”  Vol.  LXIII,  sup.  pp.  17-18. 
National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce. — Graham,  George 
H.,  “The  Motor  Vehicle — Competitor  or  Ally.  1920. 
Norton,  S.  V.,  “The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  to  Transportation,” 
A.  W.  Shaw  Company,  Chicago. 

Power  Wagon. — Various  articles  March,  July,  October,  Novem- 
ber, and  December,  1921,  and  during  the  year  1922. 

Stocks,  C.  W.,  “The  Bus  Transportation  Field,”  Electric  Rail- 
way Journal,  N.  Y.,  Vol.  LVIII,  pp.  517-522. 

Spence,  Lewis  J.,  “New  Era  of  Railroad  Transportation  in 
America,”  Paper  before  the  National  Industrial  Traffic 
League,  Railway  Age,  Vol.  LXIX,  pp.  1153-1154. 

Upham,  C.  M.,  “Car  Shortage  and  Its  Relation  to  Highway 
Work,”  Engineering  News-Record,  Vol.  LXXIX,  pp. 
1099-1100. 

White,  W.  T.,  “War  Development  of  Motor  Transportation,” 
Good  Roads,  n.  s.  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  291-292. 

Whitestde,  W.  J.,  “Motor  Truck  Competition,”  Electric  Rail- 
way Journal,  Vol.  LIV,  pp.  981-982. 


Automotive  Transportation 


221 


Willard,  Daniel  E.,  “Railroad  Transportation.  Fundamentals 
for  developing  a complete  and  well-articulated  national 
transportation  system,”  Mechanical  Engineering,  Vol. 
XLIII,  pp.  17-18. 

Williams,  C.  C.,  “When  Ship  Freight  by  Motor  Truck  and 
When  by  Rail,”  Engineering  News,  Vol.  LXXVIII,  pp. 
315-316,  660-661. 

Young,  H.  E.,  “Freight  Movements  by  Motor  Truck,”  Western 
Society  of  Engineers’  Journal,  Vol.  XXVI,  p.  204. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


PLANNING  HIGHWAY  SYSTEMS  : SELECTION  OF 
ROAD  TYPES 

A road  is  a strip  of  land  set  apart  or  appropriated  for 
travel,  public  or  private.  When  a road  has  been  dedicated 
to  the  public  or  has  been  used  so  long  that  the  public  has 
a legal  right  of  easement  therein,  it  becomes  a highway.1 

The  object  of  a road  is  to  provide  a way  for  transporta- 
tion. It  goes  without  saying,  therefore,  that  its  situation 
should  be  such  that  it  can  perform  this  function  most 
efficiently,  and  a system  of  highways  should  perform 
the  same  function  for  the  public  in  the  same  manner. 
Efficiency  here  includes  the  ideas  of  economy  and  satisfac- 
tion combined. 

In  order  to  make  a layout  of  a system  of  highways  they 
should  first  be  classified  as  to  use,  for  the  proper  treatment 
will  depend  upon  the  use  to  which  the  roads  are  to  be  put. 
Anyone  attempting  a layout  will  make  his  own  classifica- 
tion suitable  to  the  inherent  conditions  pertaining  to  the 
district  covered.  The  classification  of  Mr.  T.  H.  Mac- 
Donald, Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  made  for  another  purpose  may 
be  adopted  :2 

1.  Those  used  chiefly  related  to  agriculture. 

2.  Those  which  are  recreational  in  character. 

3.  Those  which  are  commercial. 

4.  Those  which  are  military. 

1 Highway  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  greater  importance 
and  road  in  that  of  less,  as  in  the  expression  ‘ ‘ highways  and  roads.  ’ ’ 
Baker  in  his  <fBoads  and  Pavements”  uses  roads  to  indicate  unpaved 
highways. 

2 See  Engineering  News  Record,  Vol.  LXXXIII,  p.  985. 

222 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


223 


Agricultural  roads  comprise  those  leading  from  farm  to 
town  and  are  used  chiefly  for  marketing,  and  for  social, 
educational,  and  religious  activities. 

Recreational  roads  are  either  local,  upon  which  driving 
is  done  for  pleasure,  or  through,  those  followed  by  tourists 
in  traveling  over  the  country.  Either  of  which  may  lead  to 
places  of  interest  within  or  without  the  state.  The  national 
park  roads  and  forest  highways  can  be  classified  under  the 
head  of  recreational. 

Commercial  highways  comprise  those  exclusive  of 
agricultural,  upon  which  the  haul  is  chiefly  of  a business 
nature  such  as  freight  and  express  and  bus  traffic. 

The  War  Department  of  the  United  States  during  the 
war  refused  to  designate  any  roads  as  special  Military 
Highways,  saying  a road  which  would  adequately  serve 
the  agricultural;  recreational,  and  commercial  interests 
would  serve  the  military.  However,  it  might  be  well  to 
keep  in  mind  this  possible  use  of  the  highways.  A classifi- 
cation of  roads  into  National,  State,  County  and  Town  has 
frequently  been  suggested.  Since  national  roads  do  not 
exist  as  such  in  the  United  States  the  most  densely  traveled 
routes  and  those  used  largely  for  through  traffic  are 
usually  designated  state  roads,  and  all  others  local  roads. 

Keeping  the  cost  and  use  of  the  roads  in  view  the  prob- 
lem before  the  road  planner  is : 

(1)  To  secure  the  most  economical  routes  in  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  and  future  haulage,  taking  into 
account  topography,  alignment,  grades,  and  amount  of 
traffic. 

(2)  To  accommodate  the  greatest  number  of  people 
commensurate  with  the  money  available  for  expenditure. 

(3)  To  utilize  existing  roads  as  far  as  practicable. 

The  system  will  ordinarily  consist  of  one  or  more  trunk 
lines  to  be  laid  down  first  and  several  branch  lines  con- 
necting with  the  trunk  lines.  Some  of  the  essentials  to  be 
considered  are: 

(1)  Ruling  points.  These  ordinarily  will  be  (a)  the 
main  community  centers — the  large  cities  and  villages,  for 


224 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


to  and  from  these  will  naturally  flow  the  greatest  traffic; 

(6)  Natural  configurations  such  as  mountain  passes,  low 
points  in  hills,  ridges  and  valleys,  rivers  and  bridge  sites ; 
(c)  Parks,  scenery,  and  recreational  and  amusement 
centers;  ( d ) Articulation  with  the  highways  of  adjoining 
jurisdictions,  so  that  they  may  eventually  be  united  into 
one  continuous  passage. 

(2)  Branch  lines  and  detours.  The  question  will  fre- 
quently arise  whether  to  run  a branch  line  to  some  locality 
or  detour  the  trunk.  Much  pressure  will  be  brought  by 
the  inhabitants  along  the  way  and  the  deciding  power  will 
needs  have  firmness  and  fairness  in  the  highest  degree. 

(3)  Alternate  routes.  If  two  roads  of  equal  or  almost 
equal  importance  are  available  a choice  must  be  made  be- 
tween them. 

(4)  Existing  highways  and  principal  streets  of  cities 
should  be  utilized  as  much  as  practicable.  Although  some- 
times betterments  so  great  may  come  through  changes 
that  old  routes  should  be  discontinued,  in  which  case  the 

(5)  Vested  rights  of  citizens  living  along  discontinued 
routes  and  damages  caused  by  any  improvements  made 
must  be  considered. 

(6)  The  widening  of  existing  roads  and  streets  and  costs 
of  the  same. 

(7)  The  location  of  railways,  trolley  lines,  and  street 
car  tracks  may  influence  the  layout  for  grade  crossings 
should  be  eliminated,  or  at  least  placed  where  there  is  clear 
vision  each  way  for  a considerable  distance. 

(8)  Bridges,  culverts,  and  railroad  crossings  should, 
preferably,  be  directly  along  the  highway  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  obstruction. 

(9)  Ruling  grades,  dependent  upon  the  class  of  road  will 
also  affect  the  layout. 

(10)  Esthetics.  Perhaps  the  people  of  the  United  States 
have  been  too  materialistic  and  have  paid  too  little  atten- 
tion to  the  beauty  and  interest  elements  in  highway  loca- 
tion. Especially  for  pleasure  riding  and  recreation  should 
the  esthetic  side  be  considered. 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


225 


Motor  Transport  Efficiency  Outline. — At  this  point  it 
would  be  well  for  the  road  planner  to  consult  an  excellent 
paper  by  M.  C.  Horine  and  his  efficiency  chart  which  is 
substantially  as  follows  :3 

Economic  Efficiency 

Highway  Efficiency 

Adaptability  of  road  to  carrier 
Road  capacity 

Width  of  road 
Pressure  capacity 
Impact  capacity 
Seasonal  limitations 
Tractive  resistance 
Grades 
Route 

Curves  and  corners 
Adaptability  of  carrier  to  road 
Dimensions 
Capacity  and  weight 
Speed 

Climbing  ability 
Accelerating  ability 
Stopping  ability 
Turning  radius 
Tractive  effort 
Transport  Efficiency 

Adaptability  of  carrier  to  volume  and  character  of  load 
Total  load  units  to  be  carried 
Range  of  load  units  to  be  hauled 
Average  load  units  to  be  hauled 
Density  of  load 
Length  of  haul 
Route 

Number  and  probable  duration  of  stops 
Comparative  adaptability  of  motor  transport 
Horse  transport 

Highway  efficiency 
Transport  efficiency 
Vehicle  efficiency 
Public  health 

3 ‘ ‘ Economics  of  Motor  Transport,  ’ ’ by  Merrill  C.  Horine,  Engineer 
International  Motor  Company,  New  York  City,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  May,  1922. 


226 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


Railway  transportation  including  trolley  express 
Transport  efficiency 
Economy 
Haulage  cost 
Packing  cost 

Adaptability  of  carrier  to  traffic 

Legal  restrictions  on  equipment  and  operation 
Possible  average  running  speed 
Bridges  and  ferries 
Vehicle  Efficiency 
Operation 

Moving  factor 

Loading  delays 
Unloading  delays 
Waiting  for  loads 
Clerical  delays 
Loafing 
Traffic  delays 
Load  factor 

Body  capacity 
Special  deliveries 
Return  loads 

Outside  hauling  (custom  work) 

Pickups 

Deliveries 

Trailers 

Maintenance 

Active  factor 

Disability  layups 
Chassis  repairs 
Body  repairs 
Accessory  repairs 
Tire  repairs  and  replacements 
Overhaul  and  painting 
Driver’s  disability 
Requirement  layups 

Seasonal  fluctuations 
Off-peak  period 
Shut  downs 
Labor  troubles 

Economy 

Earning  factor 
Unit  miles 
Packing  cost 
Loading  cost 
Unloading  cost 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


227 


Time  in  transit 
Marketability 
Insurance 
Interest  on  value 
Shrinkage  and  breakage 
Perishability 
Tracing  and  follow  up 
Advertising  value 
Goodwill  of  trade 
Increased  radius  of  trade 

Increased  business  turnover 
Cost  factor 

Operating  cost 
Fixed  charges 
Maintenance  charges 
Running  charges 
Overhead 

Loading  devices 
Shipping  room  devices 
Office  and  clerical  expenses 
Telephone 
Labor 

Loaders 
Watchmen 
Clerks 
Supervisors 
Accountants 
Traffic  department 
Miscellaneous 

The  Highway  System  Unit. — Ordinarily  the  units  will 
be  the  same  as  the  political  divisions,  that  is,  national, 
state,  or  local.  A national  system  would  include  the  whole 
United  States  and  will  comprise  trunk  lines  paralleling 
each  other  across  the  country  east  and  west  and  north  and 
south,  considering,  of  course,  ruling  points,  with  a few 
branch  lines  of  importance.  The  total  number  of  miles  of 
such  highways  should  probably  never  exceed  2 per  cent  of 
the  total  mileage  in  the  United  States,  or  about  50,000 
miles.  A national  highway  committee  estimated  that  this 
mileage  of  roads  would  serve  87  per  cent  of  the  people. 
The  arguments  made  in  favor  of  a national  system  of  high- 
ways may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 


228 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


(1)  Political  lines  would  be  obliterated,  thus  welding 
together  and  unifying  all  the  people.  Commercial  and 
social  intercourse  would  wipe  out  sectional  differences, 
hatreds,  and  enmities.  The  people  of  one  section  would 
learn  that  the  people  of  another  section  are  human  beings 
as  they  themselves  are,  and  are  actuated  by  the  same  in- 
stincts and  inspirations. 

(2)  Economic,  commercial,  and  pleasure  routes  cut 
across  state  lines  and  it  would  be  much  better  to  have  the 
roads  continuous  and  administered  by  one  central  control. 
They  would  then  be  kept  in  a more  uniform  condition  of 
usefulness.  The  roads  radiating  from  New  York  City  are 
mentioned  as  an  example.  They  pass  out  of  the  state  of 
New  York  and  into  the  states  of  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, and  the  District  of  Columbia.  On  any  one  of  these 
roads  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  state  you  are  in  by 
observing  the  license  tags  on  the  trucks  and  automobiles. 
A Connecticut  traffic  census  on  a road  carrying  approxi- 
mately 3000  passenger  cars  and  500  trucks  per  day  showed 
that  47  per  cent  of  the  cars  in  the  analysis  came  from  with- 
out the  state. 

(3)  Military.  All  roads  would  become  military  during 
war.  It  is  frequently  stated  that  the  good  roads  of  France 
saved  Paris  from  invasion  and  probably  saved  the  war  to 
the  allies.  The  German  General  Ivluck  admits  that  while 
he  was  advancing  upon  the  British  and  French  south  of  the 
Marne,  an  army  of  which  he  had  no  suspicion  had  struck 
outward  from  Paris  and  put  his  flank  in  deadly  peril.4 
This  army  was  one  that  Joffre  had  concentrated  in  Paris 
under  General  Maunouri,  which  had  been  brought  over 
two  or  three  good  French  roads  from  Paris  by  motor  trucks 
and  lorries  to  a point  within  striking  distance  of  the 
German  right  flank,  where  he  attacked  and  began  the  First 
Battle  of  the  Marne.  In  the  Second  Battle  of  the  Marne, 
motor  ears  performed  a very  important  part  in  the  con- 
centration of  troops  which  were  to  make  a suprise  attack. 

4 See  Simonds’  “History  of  the  World  War,”  Vols.  I and  V. 


Planning  Highway  Systems  229 

In  addition  the  motorized  armed  cars  known  as  tanks 
played  an  important  part. 

On  this  side  of  the  ocean  the  trunk  line  roads  during  the 
war  supplemented  the  railways,  which  were  badly  con- 
gested at  the  eastern  terminals,  by  hauling  large  quantities 
of  men,  materials  and  munitions.  It  is  said  that  16,000 
trucks  were  engaged  in  this  work. 

(4)  The  benefit  of  example.  The  federal  government 
not  hampered  by  local  prejudices  may  construct  roads  of 
the  highest  type  along  best  possible  locations  which  when 
completed  will  serve  as  an  example  for  state  and  local 
officers  to  pattern  after.  The  people  having  seen  such  roads 
will  more  willingly  vote  bonds  and  taxes  for  road  better- 
ment. 

State  System. — The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  and  the 
arguments  for  a national  system  of  roads  apply  with  equal 
force  to  a state  system.  In  fact  it  may  be  better  to  avoid 
the  two  extremes  of  one  consolidated  central  control  for 
the  whole  country  and  a very  highly  dispersed  decen- 
tralized local  control.  The  state  seems  to  be  a sufficiently 
large  unit  to  do  good  work  and  sufficiently  small  to  be  ap- 
proachable. Competition  with  other  states  may  bring  out 
developments  which  under  a single  central  control  would 
never  have  been  thought  of.  Notwithstanding  the  excellent 
research  work  that  is  being  carried  on  by  the  Bureau  of 
Public  Roads  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  that  which  is  being 
done  by  the  several  states  more  nearly  solves  those  special 
problems  arising  on  account  of  climate,  topography,  soil, 
and  so  on  of  the  particular  state. 

The  state  system  should  cover  a greater  per  cent  of  the 
roads  than  a national  system  can  hope  to  do.  The  effort 
seems  to  be  to  take  over  about  10  per  cent  of  the  established 
roads  as  state  highways.  Such  roads,  if  carefully  selected 
and  located,  can  accommodate  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  state. 

The  remaining  roads  would  continue  under  local — 
county  and  town — authorities.  A county  system  might  be 


230 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


laid  out  and  money  expended  upon  its  roads  about  in  pro- 
portion to  their  use. 

Again  there  is  a feeling  on  the  part  of  many  that  the 
first  expense  of  improving  a road  (that  would  include 
grading,  bridging,  and  paving,  even  if  the  latter  should  be 
done  some  time  subsequent  to  the  former)  should  be  borne 
by  the  state  and  the  abutting  property,  that  the  mainte- 
nance should  be  under  the  direction  of  the  local  authorities, 
and  paid  for  by  local  taxation  and  by  a portion  of  the  state 
automobile  license  and  gasoline  taxes  to  be  returned  to  the 
county  for  this  purpose. 

The  Procedure  of  Laying  out  a Road  System. — To  fix 

the  mind  definitely  suppose  it  to  be  a state  road  system 
that  is  to  be  laid  out.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the 
planning  should  be  done  by  an  unprejudiced  commission 
headed  by  an  engineer  of  wide  experience,  one  who  is  fair 
but  will  show  no  favoritism.  The  first  question,  after  de- 
ciding to  make  a layout  and  who  shall  make  it,  is  what 
shall  be  the  determining  factor  of  the  lay-out.  Shall  it  be 
primarily  a farm  to  market  system,  primarily  a commercial 
system,  or  primarily  a recreational  system?  A wise  com- 
mission will,  no  doubt,  attempt  to  embody  all  these  features 
in  one  system,  as  they  should  be,  for,  nowadays,  more  than 
half  the  population  of  the  country  reside  in  the  cities  and 
villages.  They  pay  taxes  and  are  as  much  entitled  to  road 
facilities  for  their  particular  industries  and  pleasures  as 
are  the  “farm  bloc,”  and  every  fair-minded  person  will 
admit  this. 

Good  maps  must  of  course  be  obtained.  Government 
contour  maps  when  available  will  assist  materially  in  select- 
ing roads  that  will  come  within  a ruling  grade.  On  these 
maps  will  first  be  noted  the  trunk  line  terminals  and  other 
ruling  points.  The  trunk  lines  should  be  as  direct  as 
practicable  from  one  ruling  point  to  the  next.  An  en- 
deavor should  be  made  to  have  the  roads  with  the  greatest 
travel  upon  them  the  straightest,  so  that  the  total  future 
haul  may  be  a minimum.  The  roads  having  the  greatest 
travel  will  usually  be  those  connecting  the  largest  cities  of 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


231 


the  state  or  articulating  with  roads  leading  to  large  cities 
of  other  states.  Then  will  be  drawn  in  branch  lines  and 
detours  so  that  when  the  plan  is  complete  every  county 
seat,  every  village  of  more  than  1000  inhabitants,  and  every 
manufacturing,  scenic,  and  pleasure  resort  of  importance 
will  have  been  reached,  as  well  as  connections  with  the  main 
roads  of  adjacent  states. 

This  will  form  a tentative  system.  Observation  upon  the 
roads  themselves  will  now  be  necessary.  A reconnaissance 
survey  may  be  made  quite  rapidly  from  an  automobile. 
Two  men  are  necessary.  The  engineer  will  ordinarily  drive 
while  the  topographer  will  be  supplied  with  a clip  board 
and  ruled  sheets  of  paper.  The  straight  line  up  the  center 
of  the  sheet  represents  the  roadway.  Small  squares  on  the 
sheets  represent  distances  and  areas.  The  scale  should  be 
made  according  to  the  work.  On  a road  with  few  houses 
and  few  topographical  features  to  be  recorded  1 inch  to  the 
mile  might  be  sufficient.  With  more  houses,  and  other 
features,  1 inch  to  the  quarter  mile  might  be  none  too  much. 
As  speedometers  (odometers)  usually  read  to  a tenth  of  a 
mile  cross-section  paper  with  ten  smaller  divisions  equal 
to  one  larger  is  convenient.  The  engineer  will  observe 
features  and  the  recorder  will  record  them  as  the  machine 
is  driven  along.  The  miles  may  be  marked  off  on  the 
sheets  ahead  then  very  quickly  by  a series  of  notations,  such 
as  a • for  a farm  house,  a dot  with  a roof  over  it  ^ for 
a school  house,  a steeple  or  cross  on  top  makes  a church. 
A crossing  wagon  road  / , a railroad  track  X,  a trolley 
line  ^ , stream  , and  so  on.  Written  explanations 
can  be  made  along  the  margin  where  necessary. 

The  reconnaisance  survey  should  cover  all  routes  on  the 
tentative  map  together  with  alternative  or  competitive 
routes  and  others  when  found  to  be  worthy  of  considera- 
tion. The  record  will  show  all  farm  houses  within  a pre- 
scribed limiting  distance  of  the  roadway,  factories,  stone 
quarries,  sand  and  gravel  pits,  schoolhouses,  and  churches. 
All  intersecting  roads,  railroads,  trolleys,  mail  routes, 
creeks,  canals,  rivers,  drainage  and  irrigation  ditches,  cul- 


232 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


verts  and  bridges,  together  with  the  approximate  angle  of 
crossing  the  highway.  Note  should  be  made  whether  grade 
crossings  may  be  eliminated  by  underground  or  overhead 
crossings,  or  by  change  of  route.  The  character  of  the 
soil  whether  clay,  loam,  gumbo,  or  sand,  when  it  differs 
from  the  general  run  of  soil  should  be  recorded,  also  hills, 
swamps,  bad  condition  generally  with  brief  notes  as  to  how 
they  may  be  bettered.  Turns  in  the  road  itself  may  be 
noted  by  an  angle  thus  , {“ , ( . Where  no 

turn  is  shown,  straight  away  is  understood.  Other  infor- 
mation and  natural  or  artificial  features  that  may  prove 
interesting  or  helpful  will  suggest  themselves  for  record  as 
the  survey  proceeds.  Of  course  the  mileage  of  each  route 
as  measured  by  the  odometer  or  speedometer  from  fixed 
and  known  points  on  the  map  will  be  taken.  By  tabulating 
and  mapping  the  information  recorded  it  will  be  possible 
to  get  at  the  comparative  merits  of  alternative  routes. 

A few  simple  surveying  instruments  will  be  useful  in 
the  work  of  reconnoitering.  A steel  100-foot  tape,  a hand 
level  and  inclinometer,  a pedometer,  a pocket  compass,  a 
small  aneroid  barometer  in  mountainous  countries,  a 
pioneer  ax  for  blazing,  and  a small  spade  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

After  the  reconnaissance,  hearings  should  be  held, 
usually  at  county  seats,  notice  of  such  hearings  having  been 
given  ahead  of  time.  At  these  hearings  the  maps  are  shown 
and  a statement  made  relative  to  the  procedure.  After 
which  an  invitation  for  suggestions  and  constructive  criti- 
cism and  even  complaints  is  given.  From  these  people  who 
are  locally  interested  in  the  roads  many  valuable  sugges- 
tions will  be  received,  and  if  they  cannot  be  followed  the 
reasons  therefor  may  be  stated.  The  people  will  thus  know 
the  investigation  and  the  location  of  the  road  have  been 
fairly  made  and  that  any  suggestions  that  cannot  be  settled 
offhand  will  be  duly  considered  before  final  location. 

The  final  location  will  usually  be  arrived  at  or  at  least 
influenced  by  the  following  considerations : Alignment  and 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


233 


distance,  population  served,  grades,  amount  and  character 
of  haulage,  other  kinds  of  transportation  available, 
character  of  soil  (sand,  clay,  gumbo,  loam),  structures, 
bridges,  railroad  grade  crossings  and  their  possible  avoid- 
ance, discovery  of  entirely  new  routes,  topography,  geologi- 
cal formation,  and  other  natural  features  and  numerous 
local  conditions,  including  availability  and  freight  charges 
of  road  materials.  These  are  not  intended  to  be  in  the 
order  of  importance,  for  no  two  roads  may  have  the  same 
determining  factors.  The  character  of  the  road  surface  to 
be  used  in  construction  may  greatly  affect  the  location. 
For  example  it  does  not  pay  to  use  steep  grades  with  hard 
smooth  pavements.  But  steeper  grades  may  be  used  with 
earth  and  gravel  roads  without  material  loss  in  efficiency. 

It  will  seldom  be  necessary  to  resort  to  preliminary  or 
complete  survey  to  lay  out  the  plan.  Sometimes  further 
viewing  of  alternative  roads  may  be  desirable  and  many 
times  compromises  will  have  to  be  made.  A traffic  census 
on  the  several  routes  would  be  extremely  valuable  for  it 
would  determine  to  which  class,  agricultural,  commercial, 
or  recreational,  the  road  belongs,  and  also  the  character  of 
the  traffic  and  what  type  of  construction  is  best  suited. 
Especially  where  there  are  alternative  roads,  as  is  usually 
the  case  in  midwestern  states  where  the  roads  were  estab- 
lished along  the  section  lines  of  the  U.  S.  land  survey,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  determine  which  is  the  important  highway 
without  a traffic  census.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
in  this  connection  that  the  improvement  of  a road  will  often 
draw  to  it  much  traffic  from  an  equally  short  competing 
line.  It  is  quite  likely  that  if  10  per  cent  of  all  roads,  pro- 
vided they  are  properly  selected,  should  be  well  improved 
they  would  carry  90  per  cent  of  all  traffic. 

Financial  Considerations. — While  little  has  been  said 
of  financial  considerations  they  are,  of  course,  of  prime  im- 
portance. The  amount  of  money  as  a whole  that  may  be 
expended  is  usually  limited  by  the  taxes  voted  or  the  bonds 
issued.  The  planner  must  cut  the  garment  according  to  the 


234 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


cloth.  He  must  know  the  approximate  unit  costs  of  the 
roads  that  will  be  constructed  as  well  as  the  mileage  of  the 
several  types.  To  know  this  he  must  estimate  the  amount 
of  traffic  that  will  pass  over  the  road,  he  should  know  also 
about  what  part  of  this  is  local  and  what  part  through,  in 
order  that  a just  division  of  the  cost  may  be  made  between 
the  local  and  larger  units.  If  all  the  money  of  construction 
were  to  be  furnished  by  the  national  government,  say,  and 
only  through  traffic  were  considered,  directness  and  grades 
between  nontrolling  points  would  he  the  determining  fac- 
tors. But  since  local  traffic  cannot  be  excluded  from  the 
use  of  such  roads  it  is  but  just  that  part  of  the  cost  of 
building  be  paid  locally,  and  if  so,  that  modifications  in  the 
lay  out  be  made  to  accommodate  the  local  conditions. 

While  the  first  cost  of  the  road  or  the  road  system  is  of 
very  great  importance  and  will  probably  be  the  greatest 
influencing  factor  for  any  particular  improvement  or  lay- 
out, the  continued  cost  or  cost  covering  a series  of  years 
approximating  the  life  of  the  road  surface  should  also  have 
consideration. 

Traffic  Census. — An  important  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  a road  alignment,  of  its  grades,  its  width,  and 
of  the  type  of  its  foundations  and  surfacing,  is  the  amount 
and  the  character  of  the  traffic  which  will  pass  over  the 
roadway  after  it  is  built.  The  best  way  to  get  a reasonable 
estimate  of  this  is  to  take  a traffic  census.  This  is  to  be  used 
as  a basis  and  to  it  should  be  added  an  estimate  of  the  in- 
crease in  traffic  which  the  improvement  itself  will  produce 
by  drawing  from  parallel  and  contributing  lines,  and  by 
the  probable  change  that  the  improvement  will  work  in  the 
character  of  the  farming,  the  industries  and  the  settlements 
along  its  way. 

The  alignment  will  be  affected  by  the  quantity  of  traffic, 
for  the  cost  of  haulage  depends,  though  not  proportionally, 
upon  the  length  of  haul.  No  less  will  the  alignment  be 
affected  by  the  class  of  traffic.  With  horse-drawn  vehicles 
curves  of  40-foot  radius  were  perfectly  acceptable,  but  with 


Underwood  and  Underwood 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


235 


the  automobile  a 200-foot  radius  is  none  too  great.  The  new 
road  systems  now  being  adopted  by  states  quite  generally 
endeavor  to  make  all  curves  to  have  radii  greater  than  200 
feet  except  in  mountainous  regions,  with  a preference  of 
500  to  800  feet. 

The  longer  radii  allow  the  turns  to  be  made  without  slow- 
ing up  the  traffic,  providing  there  is  proper  superelevation 
of  the  outer  edge.  The  longer  the  radius,  that  is,  the  flatter 
the  curve,  the  less  superelevation  is  required,  and  the  less 
the  tipping  sensation  experienced  by  slow-moving  vehicles 
on  the  turn.  Moreover,  on  short  curves  a considerable 
widening  of  the  pavement  is  required  in  order  that  the 
inner  and  outer  edges,  and  therefore  all  traffic  lanes,  may 
have  the  same  degree  of  curvature.  Also,  clear  vision  for 
the  longer  distances  necessary  for  fast-moving  traffic  is 
easier  to  obtain  on  flat  than  on  sharp  turns. 

The  minimum  grade  of  a roadway  is  usually  a question 
of  drainage,  but  the  character  and  quantity  of  traffic  is  a 
determining  factor  in  the  establishment  of  steeper  grades. 
Passenger  cars  can  more  easily  negotiate  grades  than  can 
commercial  trucks.  The  average  passenger  car  shifts  to 
second  gear  at  about  a 7 per  cent  grade  and  there  is  very 
little  shifting  necessary  on  a long  6 per  cent  grade,  hence 
for  such  cars  6 per  cent  may  be  considered  a maximum  for 
the  high-speed  gears.  This  same  car  will  have  to  drop  into 
low  at  about  10  per  cent.  Hence  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
convenience  of  operating  a passenger  car  there  is  no  justifi- 
cation in  going  to  great  expense  to  cut  a 10,  or  a 9,  or  an 
8 per  cent  grade  to  a 7 per  cent  grade.  For  the  average 
5-ton  truck  4 per  cent  and  8 per  cent  are  the  maximum 
grades  for  convenient  running  in  high  and  intermediate. 
There  may  and  possibly  are  many  other  reasons  for  cut- 
ting grades  wherever  possible.  Where  time  is  an  element 
economy  is  effected  by  the  possible  speeds  on  grades. 

The  width  of  the  roadway  will  likewise  be  influenced  by 
the  quantity  and  character  of  traffic.  With  slow-going 
wagons  a width  of  8 feet  was  sufficient  for  one  lane  of 


236 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


traffic,  blit  with  the  automobile  safety  demands  10,  and 
the  Good  Roads  Conference  of  1922  voted  that  no  road 
should  be  less  than  22. 

The  best  type  of  foundation  and  surface  is  a factor  of 
quantity  and  class  of  traffic,  and  while  as  yet  all  engineers 
do  not  agree,  the  numerous  experiments  now  being  made 
may  lead  to  standardization.  Just  as  an  example  may  be 
mentioned  the  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the  effect  of 
vehicles  on  waterbound  macadam.  Under  horse-drawn, 
iron-wheeled  wagons  and  carriages  this  was  considered  an 
ideal  pavement.  The  horses’  shoes  and  the  iron  tires  wore 
off  of  the  stones  a sufficient  amount  of  dust  to  keep  the  road 
crust  well  cemented.  The  rubber  tires  of  the  automobile 
do  not  do  that;  furthermore,  what  dust  is  on  the  road  is 
picked  up  and  scattered  to  the  winds.  The  force  of  the 
drive  wheels  also  is  sufficient  to  loosen  the  stones  and  roll 
them  from  their  bed,  causing  the  roadway  to  ravel  and 
disintegrate  rapidly. 

These  arguments  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely,  but 
enough  has  been  given  to  demonstrate  the  value  to  the  road 
planner  and  the  road  designer  of  a traffic  census. 

Methods  of  Taking  Traffic  Censuses. — It  is  well  known 
that  the  traffic  on  any  road  is  not  constant.  A count,  then, 
made  on  a single  day  could  not  be  applied  for  an  entire 
year.  Counting  every  day  for  the  year  would,  of  course, 
give  a correct  total,  but  that  is  impracticable.  It  is  cus- 
tomary, therefore,  to  take  the  count  on  a limited  number 
of  days  and  consider  their  average  to  be  the  average  for 
the  year.  There  seems  to  be  a seasonal  variation  in  traffic 
and  a weekly  variation.  The  season  variation  in  crops 
affects  all  sorts  of  commercial  enterprises,  of  which  the  road 
traffic  is  one.  Sunday  traffic  is  largely  pleasure  traffic,  and 
is  more  dense  as  a rule  than  week-day  traffic,  which  is 
partially  pleasure  and  partially  business.  In  France, 
where  more  regular  and  scientific  censuses  have  been  made 
than  in  any  other  country,  the  counting  days  are  divided 
uniformly  between  the  seven  days  of  the  week  and  the  four 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


237 


seasons  of  the  year,  in  order  to  eliminate,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  periodic  variation.  The  number  of  counting  days  per 
year  is  therefore,  28,  and  these  are  so  arranged  that  each  of 
the  days  of  the  week  figures  once  in  each  quarter.  The 
interval  between  counting  days  is,  consequently,  13.  For 
1923,  then,  the  count  might  be  made  as  follows : 


Days  of  the 
Week 

1st  Quarter 

2d  Quarter 

3d  Quarter 

4th  Quarter 

Monday 

Jan.  1 

Apr.  2 

July  3 

Oct.  2 

Sunday 

14 

15 

16 

15 

Saturday .... 

27 

28 

29 

28 

Friday 

Feb.  9 

May  11 

Aug.  11 

Nov.  10 

Thursday 

22 

24 

24 

23 

Wednesday.  . 

Mar.  7 

June  6 

Sept.  6 

Dec.  6 

Tuesday 

20 

19 

19 

19 

This  method  distributes  the  counting  days  uniformly 
over  the  entire  year,  but  evidently  the  expense  would  be 
considerable  unless  it  can  be  done  by  the  regular  patrol- 
man. For  the  purpose  of  laying  out  a system  of  highways 
quicker  results  might  be  desired.  In  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut  and  other  states  two  counts  were  made  about 
two  or  three  months  apart.  If  one  were  taken  in  July,  say, 
and  another  in  October  and  the  results  averaged  it  is 
thought  they  might  fairly  represent  the  year.  Each  period 
could  cover  an  entire  week,  thus  giving  an  average  of  14 
days  during  those  seasons  of  the  year  when  traffic  might 
most  nearly  represent  the  normal.  Blanchard’s  method5 
contemplates  taking  the  census  in  four  periods  of  three 
days  each,  one  in  April,  May,  or  June,  one  in  July,  one  in 
August,  and  one  in  September  or  October,  as  local  con- 
ditions may  dictate.  The  days  selected  should  include 
Sunday  in  order  to  include  the  heavy  automobile  traffic 
on  that  day.  If  further  information  is  desired  additional 
three-day  periods  could  be  taken  during  the  winter  season. 

5 ‘ ‘ Am.  Civ.  Eng ’s.  Pocketbook,  ’ ’ Sec.  15,  Art.  4,  Wiley  & 
Sons,  N.  Y. 


238  Planning  Highway  Systems 

Most  of  the  authorities  seem  to  think  that  the  daylight 
hours  from  5 a.m.  to  9 p.m.  are  sufficient.  But  in  the  light 
of  the  tests  being  conducted  by  the  Illinois  Highway  Com- 
mission which  show  alternate  convex  and  concave  warping 
of  pavements  from  day  to  night  it  might  be  well  to  take 
account  of  night  traffic. 

Some  of  the  latest  censuses,  namely  Iowa  and  Con- 
necticut, placed  scales  on  the  highways  and  actually 
weighed  the  vehicles.  In  Connecticut  road  scales  were  used 
which  weighed  the  individual  wheel  loads. 

The  observers  are  supplied  with  cards  on  which  is 
printed  the  classified  list  of  vehicles  and  animals  likely  to 
pass  with  columns  for  tallying  them  during  the  separate 
hours.  The  in-and-out-of-town  vehicles  are  recorded  sepa- 
rately, and,  if  actual  weights  are  not  taken,  whether  loaded 
or  unloaded.  Information  relative  to  the  weather  and 
condition  of  the  roads  is  also  noted,  and  there  are  blank 
spaces  for  the  station,  the  date,  and  the  signature  of  the 
observer. 

The  station,  or  stations,  should  be  so  placed  that  the 
road  or  district  will  be  fairly  represented,  since  it  will 
not  be  practicable  to  get  exact  data  on  every  portion  of  a 
highway,  for  every  turn-out,  branch  line,  or  tributary  will 
alter  results.  Each  station  should  be  established  in  some 
place  where  a good  view  of  the  road  for  some  little  distance 
may  be  had,  and  where  the  observers  may  be  reasonably 
comfortable.  The  number  of  observers  will  depend  upon 
the  amount  of  traffic  and  the  detailed  information  desired. 
With  considerable  traffic  it  may  be  necessary  to  divide  up 
the  work,  giving  one  set  of  observers  the  in-traffic  and  an- 
other the  out-traffic,  one  man  to  observe  passenger  auto- 
mobiles another  trucks  and  delivery  wagons,  or  one  man 
to  jack  up  and  weigh  front  wheels  and  another  rear. 
System  will  result  in  more  accurate  results,  and  in  less 
loss  of  time  for  the  drivers,  and  less  congestion  of  traffic. 
It  is  customary  to  take  the  census  over  the  entire  system 
on  the  same  days  although  that  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 


Planning  Highway  Systems  239 

Classification  of  Traffic. — The  object  of  a classification 
is  to  obtain:  (a)  the  maximum  loads  and  average  number 
of  heavy  loads  per  day.  ( b ) The  lighter  loads,  whether 
horse  drawn  or  motor  driven,  iron,  solid  rubber  or 
pneumatic  tire,  trailers,  traction  engines,  animals,  har- 
nessed and  unharnessed,  and  any  other  load  which  might 
affect  the  wear  of  the  roadway,  (c)  Any  other  interesting 
data  regarding  the  traffic,  such  as,  local  or  through,  cars 
belonging  within  or  without  the  state  or  county,  camping 
parties,  and  so  on. 

Maximum  wheel  loads  are  required,  primarily,  to  see  if 
state  regulations  regarding  them  are  being  complied  with. 
In  the  Connecticut  census  it  was  found  that  a majority  of 
trucks  were  loaded  beyond  their  rated  capacity  and  many 
of  them  beyond  the  legal  maximum  wheel  loads. 

Again  heavy  loads  stress  a pavement  near  to  its  elastic 
limit  every  time  they  pass  over  it.  It  is  well  established 
that  any  structural  material  when  stressed  near,  to,  or 
beyond  the  elastic  limit  will  become  fatigued  with  repeated 
stresses.  The  higher  the  stress  the  quicker  they  will  fail 
by  fatigue.  It  is  not  considered  good  practice  to  stress  a 
material,  especially  a brittle  material,  repeatedly  to  a point 
half-way  to  its  elastic  limit.  (The  elastic  limit  is  that  stress 
that  may  be  given  to  a body  without  producing  a per- 
manent set ; below  which  it  will  return  to  its  original  shape 
upon  the  removal  of  the  stress.)  A walnut  may  not  crack 
at  the  first  blow  but  with  a sufficient  number  of  no  harder 
repeated  blows  will  crack.  The  higher  the  stresses  the 
sooner  the  crack  occurs.  So  it  is  important  to  know  how 
many  loads  daily  are  stressing  a pavement  near  to  its  elastic 
limit.  From  all  the  loads  it  has  been  the  endeavor  of  road 
engineers  to  work  out  “importance  factors”  that  will 
measure  the  relative  damage  done  by  the  several  classes. 
The  Road  Board  of  Great  Britain  has  adopted  the  British 
ton  as  a unit  and  calculations  are  based  on  the  traffic  in 
tons  per  yard  of  width  per  year  or  per  mile.6 


Keport  of  Third  International  Eoad  Congress,  1913. 


240  Planning  Highway  Systems 

The  British  Road  Board  Unit  Weights  are  as  follows: 


Classification  of  Vehicles 


Assumed  Average 
Weight  in  Tons. 


Ordinary  cycles 

Motor  cycles 

Motor  cars  (including  motor  cabs  and  any  other 

motor  vehicles) 

Motor  vans  (covered) 

Motor  omnibuses 

Motor  lorries  (rubber  tires) 

Trailers  to  rubber  tired  lorries 

Motor  lorries  (steel  tires) 

Trailers  to  steel  tired  lorries 

Light  tractors 

Trailers  to  light  tractors 

Traction  engines 

Trailers  to  traction  engines 

Light  vehicles  (one  horse) 

Light  vehicles  (two  or  more  horses) 

Heavy  vehicles  (one  horse) 

Heavy  vehicles  (two  or  more  horses) 

Omnibuses  (two  or  more  horses) 

Tram  cars  (electric,  steam  or  horse,  as  the  case 

may  be) 

Horses  (led  or  ridden) 

Cattle 

Sheep  and  pigs 

Hand  carts  and  barrows 


0.09 

.13 

1.6 

2.5 

6.0 

6.0 

5.0 

10.0 

5.0 

5.0 

5.0 
12.0 

8.0 
0.4 
0.6 
1.25 
2.5 
3.0 


0.5 

0.3 

0.1 


Horses  drawing  vehicles  (to  be  calculated  from 
number  of  vehicles) 


0.5 


The  French  unit  of  traffic  is  technically  known  as  the 
“collar,”  a draft  animal  harnessed  to  a wagon  being 
counted  as  1.0.  The  metric  ton,  1000  kg.,  is  also  sometimes 
used.  The  French,  feeling  that  the  dead  weight  of  a 
vehicle  or  animal  did  not  truly  measure  its  effect  as  to 
wear  on  a road  surface,  classified  the  traffic  and  assigned 
importance  factors  to  the  several  classes.  From  1882  to 
1903  the  classification  consisted  of:  1st,  Trucks  and  farm 
wagons,  loaded;  2d,  Public  vehicles  designed  for  ti’ans- 
porting  passengers  and  their  baggage;  3d,  Light  vehicles, 
such  as  private  vehicles,  and  empty  farm  wagons;  4th, 
Larger  animals,  such  as  horses,  mounted  or  not,  mules,  and 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


241 


large  cattle;  5th,  Small  beasts,  such  as  sheep,  goats,  and 
pigs.  In  1903  motor  vehicles  were  separately  listed;  they 
were  divided  into  five  classes : 1st,  Metallic-tired  auto- 
mobiles, ‘ ‘ which  in  general  are  heavily  loaded,  have  a slow 
movement  and  produce  the  effect  of  wearing  away  the 
road  surface”;  2d,  Elastic  tired  automobiles  licensed  to 
make  a speed  or  not  more  than  30  km.  per  hour;  3d, 
Automobiles  whose  speed  was  less  than  30  km.  per  hour; 
4th,  Bicycles  or  velocipedes  propelled  by  the  feet  of  the 
rider;  and  5th,  Motor  cycles,  whether  having  two,  three, 
or  four  wheels.  The  report  of  the  second  international 
road  congress  further  states  that  “it  is  necessary  to 
attribute  to  each  element  of  the  traffic  an  importance  which 
belongs  to  it  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  destructive  effect 
exercised  on  the  road  crust.”  Consequently  the  numbers 
of  vehicles  or  animals  in  the  several  classes  were  modified  by 
multiplying  them  by  importance  factors  arbitrarily 
assumed. 


Classification 


Importance 

factors 


An  animal  harnessed  to  a loaded  vehicle 

Loaded  trucks  and  farm  wagons 

Public  vehicles  for  transporting  passengers 

Light  vehicles,  and  empty  farm  wagons 

Harnessed  horses  to  light  vehicle  or  empty  wagon. . 

Mounted  horses  or  with  load  on  back 

Unharnessed  horses  

Cattle  

Small  beasts  (sheep,  pigs,  goats)  

Automobiles  with  metallic  tires,  weight  in  metric 

tons  times  FA— No.  of  collars 

Automobiles  with  elastic  tires 

Motor  cycles  

Vehicles  licensed  to  make  a speed  over  30  km. 

per  hour  

Vehicles  licensed  to  make  a speed  of  less  than 
30  km.  per  hour 


1 collar 

1 

1 


% 

V<L 

% 

Vs 

Vs 


_3 

1 O 


3 

1 


From  this  it  was  possible  to  reduce  all  traffic  to  the  unit 
‘ ‘ collar,  ’ ’ which  was  used  as  a comparative  measure  of  the 


242  Planning  Highway  Systems 

use  of  the  several  roadways.  The  tonnage  was  calculated 
by  multiplying  the  numbers  by  average  weights  obtained 
by  weighing  a sufficiently  large  number  of  the  units  in  each 
class. 

Consideration  was  also  made  of  the  weight  of  the  useful 
load  as  separate  from  the  weight  of  the  vehicle  itself. 
Animals  not  harnessed  were  considered  as  a part  of  the  use- 
ful load. 

In  Italy  traffic  censuses  followed  practically  the  same 
classification  and  methods  as  in  France. 

In  the  United  States  some  of  the  states  have  used 
coefficients  of  reduction,  or  importance  factors,  while  many 
others  have  contented  themselves  with  a count  of  vehicles 
only. 

In  1910  Maryland  used  the  following: 


1.  Ridden  horse  and  one-horse  vehicle 2 

2.  Two-horse  vehicles  4 

3.  Three-horse  vehicles 6 

4.  Four-horse  vehicles  8 

5.  More  than  four-horse  vehicles 12 

6.  Motor  cycles  2 

7.  Motor  runabouts  10 

8.  Four-  or  five-seat  touring  cars 20 

9.  Six-  or  seven-seat  touring  ears 40 

10.  Motor  trucks  or  drays 20 


The  New  York  State  Highway  Department  took  a census 
in  1909  in  which  the  following  classification  and  reduction 
coefficients  were  used : 


Class  of  Traffic  Relative  Weight 

Horse-drawn  traffic 

Horses  with  vehicles 1 

One-horse  vehicle,  light  2 

One-horse  vehicle,  heavy  3 

Two-horse  vehicle,  light  3 

Two-horse  vehicle,  heavy 4 

Three-horse  vehicle,  heavy 5 

Four-horse  vehicle,  heavy  6 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


243 


Motor  vehicles 

Motor  cycles  1 

Two-passenger  cars 2 

Three-passenger  cars  3 

Four-passenger  cars  4 

Five-passenger  cars  6 

Seven-passenger  cars  7 

Trucks,  omnibuses,  etc 10 

Miscellaneous 

Traction  engines  15 

Two  traction  engines  30 

Miscellaneous  heavy  traffic  5 

upward 

The  Massachusetts  Highway  Commission,  1912  Report, 
say,  “After  all  it  is  not  numbers  which  tell  the  story,  it  is 
weight,  and  it  is  not  weight  alone,  but  the  vehicle  by  which 
it  is  transported,  whether  by  horses  or  by  motor.  . . . All 
these  considerations  are  probably  not  so  important  on  many 
road  surfaces  as  the  actual  weight  imposed  upon  the  road 
per  inch  width  of  tire  resting  upon  the  road.”  There  was 
used  in  this  census  the  following  weights : 

Motors  Tons 

Runabouts  1.43 

Touring  cars  2.23 

Trucks  6.25 

Horse-drawn  vehicles 

One-horse,  light  36 

One-horse,  heavy  1.12 

Two  or  more  horses,  light 54 

Two  or  more  horses,  heavy 2.46 

James  and  Reeves,  with  the  United  States  Bureau  of 

Public  Roads,  recommend  the  ton-mile  basis  and  give  the 

following  weights : ^ 

Tons 

One-horse  wagon,  loaded,  0.88;  unloaded 0.28 

Two-horse  wagon,  loaded,  1.57 ; unloaded 0.47 

Four-horse  wagon,  loaded ; 3.88 ; unloaded ....  0.54 
Pleasure  vehicles,  one-horse,  0.28;  two-horse..  0.47 

Rubber-tired  pleasure  vehicle  0.28 

Saddle  horse  0.50 

Motor  cycle  0.20 

Excessively  heavy  vehicle 3.94 

Motor,  runabout,  1.68,  touring  car 2.00 

Motor  dray,  loaded,  2.43 ; unloaded 1.23 

Draught  horses  0.50 


244 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


In  a traffic  census  taken  by  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  the  weights  were  reduced  to  traffic  units  per 
minute  per  foot  width  of  roadway  which  was  called  density. 
By  this  rule,  “the  number  of  vehicles  passing  a given  point 
in  eight  hours  times  the  traffic  unit  divided  by  8 times  60 
times  the  width  of  the  roadway  equals  the  density.”  The 
weights  and  traffic  units  used  were : 


Rubber-tired  vehicles 

Weight  in 
tons 

Traffic 

value 

Large  automobile  trucks,  loaded  . 

....  9 ... 

...  5 

Large  automobile  trucks,  empty  . 

....  4 ... 

...  4 

Small  automobile  trucks,  loaded  . . 

....  3 ... 

...  3 

Small  automobile  trucks,  empty  . . 

....  iy2... 

...  2 

Pleasure  automobiles  

....  i3/4 ... 

...  1 

Carriages  

....  2 ... 

..  2 

Steel-tired  vehicles  ranged  in  weight  from  1 to  7^ 
tons  and  in  traffic  value  from  2 to  10. 


A suggested  form  for  a traffic  census  sheet  presented  by 
a committee  appointed  to  study  the  question  of  traffic 
censuses  to  the  New  Jersey  State  Association  of  Roads  is 
shown  on  p.  245.  This  sheet  also  bears,  for  the  use  of  the 
office,  blanks  for  the  tabulation  of  the  traffic  by  classes : 


Kind  of  Vehicle 

No. 

Weight 

Motor  cycle 

0.25 

Light-horse,  empty 

.1.25 

Light-horse,  loaded 

2.00 

Heavy  two-horse,  empty 

3.20 

Heavy  two-horse,  loaded 

6.00 

Light  pleasure  motor  car 

1.50 

Heavy  pleasure  motor  car 

2.50 

Light  motor  truck,  empty 

1.00 

Light  motor  truck,  loaded 

2.50 

Heavy  motor  truck,  empty .... 

5.00 

Heavy  motor  truck,  loaded .... 

10.50 

Specials:  10  tons 

15  tons 

Over  15  tons 

Total 

Vehicle-Tons 


Tonnage  per  foot  width  of  pavement 
Tonnage  per  foot  width  of  roadway . . 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


245 


SUGGESTED  FORM  OF  TRAFFIC  CENSUS  SHEET 


Traffic  Census  Sheet  County  Number Station  No County 

State  Highway  Department  of  New  Jersey 192.  . . 

Road  at 

Exact  location 

Count  taken from to from to 


Time  Count 
Was  Taken 

Motor  Cycle 

Light 

Horse 

Heavy 

Horse 

Pleas- 

ure 

Motor 

Cars 

Light 

Motor 

Trucks 

Heavy 

Motor 

Trucks 

Specials 

Street  Cars 

Hourly  Totals 

>> 

ft 

a 

Loaded 

>> 

ft 

a 

w 

Loaded 

1 Light 

Heavy 

>> 

ft 

a 

w 

Loaded 

>> 

ft 

a 

Loaded 

m 

a 

o 

6 

vH 

| 15-tons 

Over  15-ts. 

6 a.  m.  to  7 a.  m. 

7 a.  m.  to  8 a.  m. 

8 a.  m.  to  9 a.  m. 

9 a.  m.  to  10  a.  m. 

10  a.  m.  to  11  a.  m. 

12  noon  to  1 p.  m. 

1 p.  m.  to  2 p.  m. 

3 a.  m.  to  4 a.  m. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 a.  m.  to  5 a.  m. 

5 a.  m.  to  6 a.  m. 

Total 

Of  above  motor  vehicles carried  foreign  licenses  as  follows 

Weather 


Type  of  pavement Condition  of  pavement 

Width  of  roadway Width  of  pavement Traffic ....  Narrow . . . 

Tires Special Inspector 

Notes Checked  by 


Destructive  Factors. — From  the  above  it  appears  that 
there  is  a general  opinion  that  there  should  be  some  com- 
mon measure  for  the  destructive  effect  of  vehicles  upon 
road  surfaces.  As  yet  no  unanimity  of  opinion  has  crystal- 
lized. While  density  of  traffic  influences  the  surface  wear 
of  the  road  crust — considerably  in  the  case  of  earth  and 
gravel,  less  for  macadam  and  asphalt,  and  still  less  for 
brick  and  concrete — the  actual  weight  of  the  wheel  load 


246 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


seems  to  have  a much  greater  destructive  effect.  The  im- 
pact due  to  speed  and  irregularities  of  the  road  surface, 
the  resiliency  of  the  tires,  the  proportion  of  sprung  to  un- 
sprung weight,  and  the  shoving  forces  of  the  wheels  all  have 
their  effects  which  are  usually  in  some  way  connected  with 
either  the  weight  or  the  speed,  or  both,  of  the  vehicle.  The 
many  experiments  now  being  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  and  the  several  states  may 
furnish  data  from  which  a practical  measure  will  some  day 
be  devised.  Mr.  Older,  Chief  Highway  Engineer  of  the 
State  of  Illinois,  under  whose  direction  the  comprehensive 
investigational  and  endurance  tests  under  way  in  that  state 
are  being  carried  on,  recently  stated  to  a party  of  visitors, 
of  which  the  author  was  one,  that  in  his  opinion  weight, 
including  impact,  is  the  prime  factor  in  the  destruction  of 
a pavement.  Wear  is  of  very  minor  importance,  tempera- 
ture and  weather  is  of  considerable  importance. 

Road  surfaces  must  be  considered  as  bodies  acted  upon 
by  forces.  Some  day  the  stresses  produced  by  these  forces 
will  have  been  analyzed,  then  will  it  be  possible  to  stand- 
ardize the  importance  of  the  several  vehicle  loads.  At 
present  it  is  known  that  the  weight  of  the  load  and  the 
weight  of  the  pavement  itself  are  under  some  circumstances 
sufficient  to  produce  cracks  in  the  pavement  and  disruption 
of  the  road  crust.  Bearing  tests  and  bending  tests  are  be- 
ing devised  to  measure  the  effects  of  such  loads.  Road 
crusts,  earth,  gravel,  macadam,  asphalt,  brick,  concrete, 
are  to  varying  degrees  elastic  bodies  and  when  loaded  they 
give,  as  an  elastic  band  stretches,  a spring  shortens,  or  a 
bow  bends,  until  the  internal  stresses  reach  a limiting  point 
where  the  crust  is  broken  or  permanently  distorted.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  effect  on  an  elastic  body  of  a suddenly 
applied  load  is  twice  as  destructive  as  the  same  load 
gradually  applied.  And  when  the  action  is  an  impact  the 
destructive  effect  may  be  very  great  indeed,  depending  on 
the  physical  properties  of  the  impinging  bodies.  But  how- 
ever the  load  is  applied,  whenever  the  internal  stresses 
reach  the  limiting  strength  of  the  material  of  which  the 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


247 


road  crust  is  composed  it  will  go  to  pieces.  The  sudden  ap- 
plication of  the  load  by  fast  driving  is  a sort  of  impact. 
The  stresses  produced  by  this  impact  are  now  being 
studied.  Much  good  is  expected  to  come  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  destructive  vehicle  influence  from 
these  researches. 

Another  effect  of  speed  is  noted  on  the  more  or  less 
viscous  materials  of  which  road  surfaces  are  composed. 
The  pushing  of  the  wheels  against  the  surface  causes 
wrinkles  which  continue  to  grow  until  the  wrinkles  become 
waves  entirely  across  the  pavement.  Such  waves  may  also 
be  produced  by  expansion  and  contraction  due  to  changes 
in  temperature,  but  are  probably  always  accentuated  by 
wheel  pressure.  Side  thrust  of  wheels  often  produces 
longitudinal  waves  in  viscous  road  crusts. 

In  the  classifications  given  no  one  seems  to  have  con- 
sidered the  proportion  of  sprung  and  unsprung  weight  in 
the  motor  car.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the 
resiliency  of  the  springs  relieves  the  pavement  of  very  much 
of  the  shock  of  impact.  This  is  illustrated  by  an  attempt 
to  drive  a nail  into  a springy  board.  It  can  hardly  be  done 
because  the  springiness  of  the  board  uses  up,  absorbs,  the 
work  of  impact.  A mechanical  statement  is,  the  work  of 
impact  equals  the  change  in  kinetic  energy,  or  algebraically 
stated 


when  the  entire  energy  has  been  absorbed.  Here  F is  the 
acting  force  and  s the  distance  through  which  it  acts,  Fs, 
is  the  work  done  by  the  force  F.  W is  the  weight  of  the 
ram  or  moving  body  (vehicle,  wheel  load),  v the  velocity 
of  impact  and  g the  acceleration  of  gravity,  a factor  that 
enters  the  equation  in  the  expressing  of  mass  in  terms  of 
weight.  Solving  this  equation  for  F there  results, 


248  Planning  Highway  Systems 

which  shows  that  the  smaller  s is  the  greater  the  force  of 
impact  F.  When  s is  made  long  by  means  of  a spring  the 
force  F becomes  smaller.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  old 
method  of  catching  a baseball  without  gloves — the  hands 
were  allowed  to  go  backward  so  that  the  work  of  stopping 
the  ball  was  spread  over  a greater  distance,  the  impact 
force  thus  becoming  so  small  it  did  not  sting  the  hands. 

The  effect  upon  the  road,  and  also  the  vehicle,  is  like 
that  of  the  hammer  which  hits  a nail  on  the  anvil.  The 
nail  is  flattened,  pounded  to  pieces  very  soon.  But  if  the 
nail  were  not  placed  upon  the  solid  anvil  but  upon  a slab 
of  springy  steel,  it  might  be  pounded  all  day  without  doing 
it  much  harm,  the  spring  at  all  times  absorbing  the  shock. 
So  with  the  weight  of  the  vehicle  largely  sprung  the  damage 
to  the  roadway  is  comparatively  small.  Therefore,  it  would 
seem , as  though  a fair  classification  would  take  into 
account  the  springs  of  the  vehicle. 

The  pneumatic  tire,  and  the  cushion  tire  and  wheel, 
each  act  as  springs  and  shock  absorbers  in  varying  degrees. 
In  some  of  the  censuses,  pneumatic  or  solid  tires  were  noted, 
and  very  many  of  the  earlier  noted  whether  rubber  or  steel 
tires  were  used. 

Just  how  far  all  these  things  should  be  taken  into  ac- 
count is  questionable.  Whether  or  not  just  as  good  results 
would  not  come  for  even  a simpler  classification  is  not  yet 
determined.  It  might  be  that  only  the  heavy  loads  and 
their  frequency  is  all  that  need  be  considered  if  the  de- 
structive effect  of  traffic  alone  is  aimed  at. 

The  great  amount  of  pleasure  riding  and  the  tremendous 
desire  for  such  riding  should  be  considered  in  laying  out 
a system  of  roads  and  in  the  selection  of  a type  of  road, 
therefore  all  passenger  cars  and  motor  cycles  should  be 
counted  and  given  an  influence  number. 

Other  Methods  of  Estimating’  Amount  of  Traffic. — The 
amount  of  road  traffic  may  be  roughly  estimated  from  the 
area  served  by  the  highway.  Upon  a map  is  outlined  the 
tributary  territory  and  its  area  measured  by  any  one  of 
several  means.  The  area  may  be  divided  into  small  squares 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


249 


of  known  size  and  the  number  of  squares  counted ; it  may 
be  divided  into  strips  and  the  length  of  the  strips  meas- 
ured with  a scale  and  thence  the  area  computed,  or  a planim- 
eter  may  be  used.  Having  found  the  area  the  unit  ton- 
nage is  estimated  from  a knowledge  of  the  character  of  the 
crops  raised  and  the  industries  in  the  territory  from  which 
the  haulage  is  calculated.  The  average  haul  may  be  de- 
termined, if  desired,  by  finding  approximately  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  area  and  measuring  its  distance  from  the 
market.  If  the  market  place  is  at  the  center  of  a circle  sur- 
rounding it  and  the  products  are  uniformly  distributed 
over  the  circle  the  mean  distance  is  two-thirds  the  radius 
of  the  circle. 

The  tonnage,  arising  from  farms,  which  is  transported 
over  the  roads  varies  with  the  kind  of  crop,  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  the  amount  of  stock  fed,  or  kept  for  dairying,  and 
numerous  other  local  conditions.  Studies  made  by  various 
authorities7  indicate  that  the  marketable  products  vary 
from  1/10  to  1/2  ton  per  acre.  If  a circular  area  with 
market  place  at  the  center  is  served  by  six  uniformly  dis- 
tributing radial  roads  a mathematical  analysis  will  show 
that  the  tonnage  upon  each  one  of  these  roads,  one-sixth 
that  from  the  whole  circle,  will  be 

27=335.12gr2 

where  T=total  tons  per  year, 

q= yield  of  marketed  crops  in  tons  per  acre, 
r— maximum  haul-radius  of  the  circle. 

Dividing  T by  the  number  of  working  days  per  year 
(usually  taken  as  300)  gives  the  average  daily  haul  into 
the  market.  The  average  length  of  haul  may  be  taken  as 
2/3  r.  The  haul  over  any  zone  whose  edges  are  concentric 
with  the  circle  is  considered  to  be  all  that  originating  in 
the  area  outside  the  zone  plus  that  originating  within  the 

7 Bulletin  205,  Cornell  Agricultural  College ; Bulletin  136,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture;  Bulletin  49,  Bureau  of  Statistics,  U.  S. 
Dept,  of  Agr.  Reports  of  the  1910  U.  S.  Census. 


250 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


zone  times  the  mean  distance  from  the  inner  edge  of  the 
zone.  The  result  of  the  analysis  gives  this  equation,  for 
the  haul  over  any  zone  having  an  outer  radius  a,  and  an 
inner  radius  b, 


H — Tr—Ta 


2 a2  — ab  — b2 
3 (a+6) 


(Ta-Tb), 


where  Tr,Ta  and  Tb  represent  the  tonnage  originating  on  the 
sectors  of  radius  r,  a and  b respectively. 

For  the  first  mile, 


o = l,  b = 0. 


H = Tr- 1/3  Ta. 
For  the  eighth  mile, 


o = 8,  6 = 7. 

U — Tt—  T’s+23/45  (Ts-T7) 


Theoretical  Average  Tonnage  of  Six  Uniformly  Distributed 
Market  Roads* 


Unifobm  Yield  per  Acre  of 


Maxi- 

mum 

Haul 

Aver- 

age 

Haul 

One-tenth  Ton 

One-fourth  Ton 

One-half  Ton 

Total 

Tons 

per 

Year 

Tons  Hauled 
per  day 

Total 

Tons 

per 

Year 

Tons  Hauled 
per  day 

Total 

Tons 

per 

Year 

Tons  Hauled 
per  day 

Over 

1st 

Mile 

Over 

8th 

Mile 

Over 

1st 

Mile 

Over 

8th 

Mile 

Over 

1st 

Mile 

Over 

8th 

Mile 

1 

0.67 

33 

0.07 

84 

0.17 

168 

0.34 

2 

1.33 

134 

0.40 

335 

1.00 

670 

2.01 

3 

2.00 

302 

0.96 

754 

2.40 

1,508 

4.80 

4 

2.67 

536 

1.74 

1,340 

4.36 

2,681 

8.71 

5 

3.33 

838 

2.75 

2,094 

6.87 

4,189 

13.74 

6 

4.00 

1206 

3.98 

3,016 

9.95 

6,031 

19.90 

7 

4.67 

1642 

5.43 

4,106 

13.58 

8,211 

27.15 

8 

5.33 

2145 

7.11 

0.85 

5,362 

17.76 

2.13 

10,724 

35.52 

4.25 

9 

6.00 

2714 

9.00 

2.75 

6,786 

22.51 

6.88 

13,572 

45.02 

13.75 

10 

6.67 

3351 

4.13 

4.87 

8,378 

27.82 

12.18 

16,756 

55.63 

24.35 

11 

7.33 

4056 

13.47 

7.22 

10,138 

33.68 

18.05 

20,279 

67.35 

36.10 

12 

8.00 

4826 

16.04 

9.79 

12,064 

40.10 

24.48 

24,128 

£0.20 

48  95 

13 

8.67 

5663 

18.83 

12.58 

14,158 

47.08 

31.45 

28,316 

94.15 

62.90 

14 

9.33 

656S 

21.85 

15.59 

16,420 

54.63 

38.98 

32,840 

109.25 

77.95 

15 

10.00 

7540 

25.09 

18.83 

18,850 

62.73 

47.08 

37,700 

125.45 

94.15 

* From  Bulletin  136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


251 


Planning  Highway  Systems 

The  table  shows  the  theoretical  average  tonnage  on  each 
of  six  uniformly  distributed  radial  roads.  It  is  taken 
from  Bulletin  136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Since  roads  do  not  run  in  practice  in  this  manner  the  re- 
sults can  only  be  used  for  comparison  in  confirming 
estimates. 

Mr.  E.  W.  James,  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  U.  S. 
Dept,  of  Agriculture,  makes  an  analysis  of  the  distribution 
of  traffic  over  the  roads  of  a township  located  along  the 
section  lines  of  the  United  States  land  survey.  The  market 
place  is  taken  at  the  center  of  the  township.8 


ROADS 


Graphic  representation  of  distribution  of  traffic  on  roads  located 
along  section  lines. 


His  analysis  assumes  the  lay  of  the  country  makes  all  roads 
equally  traversable  and  that  the  traffic  seeks  the  nearest 
highway  thence  to  the  main  traveled  road  east  and  west 
or  north  and  south  through  the  market  center.  This 
analysis  shows  that  4.8  per  cent  of  the  total  mileage  carry 
39.3  per  cent  of  the  traffic;  that  9.5  per  cent  of  the  roads 
carry  71  per  cent  of  the  traffic.  In  his  opinion  this  analysis 
corroborates  the  observation  of  engineers  to  the  effect  that 
20  per  cent  of  the  roads  carry  80  per  cent  of  the  traffic. 

8 Engineering  Record,  Vol.  LXXIV,  p.  439. 


252  Planning  Highway  Systems 

Of  course  the  most  important  roads,  measured  in  traffic, 
are  the  ones  nearest  the  market,  15-22,  15-16,  16-21,  21-22. 
Following  these  naming  only  one  of  the  four  symmetrical 
roads,  in  the  order  of  importance  are  14-23,  14-13,  13-24, 
13-x,  14-15,  11-12,  12-x,  12-13,  1-x,  11-14,  and  1-12. 

The  same  objections  to  this  method  hold  as  to  the  pre- 
ceding. Local  conditions  always  affect  the  travel  on 


Road  between 
Sections 

Relative 

Importance 

Road  between 
Sections 

Relative 

Importance 

15-22 

100 

11-12 

7 

14-23 

60 

12-x 

7 

14-13 

25 

12-13 

2 

13-24 

20 

1-x 

2 

13-x 

15 

11-14 

1 

14-15 

13 

1-12 

1 

roads ; hills,  valleys,  soil,  drainage,  nearness  to  other  cities, 
railways,  streams,  and  location  of  farmhouses,  schoolhouscs, 
churches,  and  factories,  all  enter  into  the  estimate.  A 
reconnaissance  and  the  good  judgment  of  the  observer  must 
supplement  any  method  of  formal  procedure. 

The  Selection  of  a Suitable  Type  of  Road. — The  high- 
way plan  should,  if  it  has  been  carefully  and  scientifically 
made  specify  the  type  of  roadway  as  well  as  the  location 
of  the  highway.  However,  when  the  improvement  is  to  be 
paid  for  by  a special  tax  on  the  abutting  land,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  allow  the  taxpayers  to  have  something  to  say 
about  the  type.  Road  engineers  often  object  to  this  as 
being  unscientific  and  unsound,  on  the  theory  that  the 
layman  is  ignorant  of  the  properties  and  behavior  of  road 
materials  and  that  only  an  expert  can  make  the  proper 
selection.  The  author’s  observation  is,  however,  that  hard- 
headed  business  men  and  farmers  who  have  passed  through 
the  experiences  of  rough  knocks  are  no  more  likely  to  make 
a mistake  in  the  selection  of  a road  type  than  is  the  young 
engineer  fresh  from  the  halls  of  college,  or  the  engineer 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


253 


whose  experience  has  prejudiced  him  in  favor  of  particular 
types  of  road  surfacing.  The  best  and  fairest  of  engineers 
cannot  agree,  then  why  not  give  the  man  who  must  pay  the 
fiddler  an  opportunity  to  dance? 

It  will  be  well,  nevertheless,  for  the  engineer  to  suggest  a 
type,  or  types,  of  roadway  with  his  reasons  for  its  or  their 
suitability.  If  he  can  show  that  one  type  is  superior  to 
another  the  tax-payer  will  usually  follow  his  advice,  and 
agree  to  the  type  suggested.  The  final  decision  must  rest 
with  the  road  officials.  They  should  know  the  requirements 
of  the  road,  whether,  for  example,  it  is  to  be  largely  com- 
mercial or  used  largely  for  pleasure;  whether  durability 
or  noiselessness  is  a determining  factor ; or  whether  a pleas- 
ing appearance  and  convenience  to  the  inhabitants  living 
along  the  way  are  of  greater  importance  than  directness 
and  low  grades.  The  decision  must  be  made  after  taking 
all  things  into  consideration  even  to  the  whims  of  the 
property-holders.  The  best  road  for  a given  location  is  the 
one  which  at  a reasonable  cost  will  give  over  a long  period 
of  time  a service  which  is  most  satisfactory  to  the  majority 
of  its  users.  What  is  a reasonable  cost  and  what  is  satis- 
factory service  are  debatable  questions  and  usually  must 
be  compromised  to  a greater  or  less  extent. 

An  ideal  road  is  one  that  is  cheap  to  construct  and  main- 
tain, one  that  is  durable,  presents  light  resistance  to  traffic 
but  is  not  slippery,  is  comfortable  to  travel  and  not  annoy- 
ing to  users  or  dwellers  along  its  side,  and  one  that  is  easily 
cleaned  and  is  sanitary.  No  road  can  contain  all  these 
qualities  to  the  same  degree,  neither  are  they  all  of  equal 
importance,  but  each  should  be  given  some  weight  in  the 
selection. 

Perhaps  the  first  and  most  important  item  to  be  con- 
sidered is  the  economic  one  of  cheapness  in  construction 
and  maintenance.  In  making  a decision  between  two  types 
of  pavement  the  first  cost  will  probably  have  more  weight 
than  will  the  ultimate  cost.  The  fact  that  a higher  priced 
article  will  last  longer  and  in  the  end  prove  to  be  a saving 


254  Planning  Highway  Systems 

has  little  charm  for  the  man  who  has  not  the  ready  money 
to  pay  for  the  article.  He  will  content  himself  with  the 
cheaper  until  he  can  afford  the  better.  If  a community 
cannot  pay  for  a certain  type  of  road,  no  matter  how  de- 
sirable that  may  be,  that  type  cannot  be  used.  Types  of 
roads  must  be  selected  which  will  utilize  the  materials  most 
available.  It  would  seem  to  be  unwise  for  brick  to  be 
shipped  from  the  Middle  West  to  New  England,  or  granite 
blocks  from  New  England  to  the  Middle  West.  Gravel, 
being  plentiful  in  many  states,  is  being  used,  and  rightly 
so,  more  than  any  other  road  material  notwithstanding  the 
durability  of  a gravel  roadway  is  less  than  that  of  many 
other  types. 

Durability  is  an  important  factor  from  an  economical 
standpoint,  as  it  enters  vitally  in  the  long-run  cost  of  a 
pavement.  It  is  also  of  importance  on  account  of  the  in- 
fernal nuisance  of  having  a roadway  full  of  pot  holes  and 
rough  places,  to  say  nothing  of  the  inconvenience  to  users 
of  frequent  repairs.  Road  officers  are  no  more  given  to  re- 
garding the  adage  “a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine,”  than  are 
other  people,  consequently  non-durable  roads  are  usually 
more  or  less  out  of  order. 

Durability  depends  upon  the  materials  used  in  construc- 
tion and  their  manipulation,  proportioning,  and  other 
treatment ; the  character  weight  and  density  of  traffic ; 
system  or  lack  of  system  in  making  repairs ; the  opening  up 
of  pavements  for  water,  gas,  and  sewer  or  other  purposes; 
building  operations  along  the  street ; cleanliness ; the  ab- 
sence or  presence  of  street-car  tracks ; climate  and  possibly 
other  factors. 

Materials  and  Design. — The  physical  properties  of  ma- 
terials— their  tensile,  compressive,  and  shearing  strengths, 
their  elasticity,  brittleness,  etc. — while  important  elements 
in  the  durability  of  pavements,  the  design  of  the  pavement, 
its  thickness,  the  proportioning  and  mixing  of  parts,  the 
laying,  as  well  as  the  subgrade  and  its  treatment  are  all 
elements  that  count  very  much  also.  No  matter  how  good 


GIVING  A MACADAM  ROAD  AN  APPLICATION  OP  TAR  VIA 

BINDER 


A ROAD  OP  MIXED  ASPHALT  AND  CONCRETE- 
TESTED  OUT 


BEING 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


255 


a material  it  can  easily  be  spoiled  in  the  handling.  Some 
materials  like  vitrified  brick  and  stone  will  last  indefinitely 
on  a little-used  street  while  others  like  asphalt  and 
creosoted  wood  block  are  much  better  for  considerable  wear. 
The  use  of  definite  and  often  meticulous  specifications  is 
to  insure  good  materials  and  proper  manipulation  of  the 
same,  while  the  plans  are  carefully  prepared  ahead,  so  that 
durability  and  satisfaction  may  result. 

The  effect  of  character,  weight,  and  density  of  traffic  has 
been  frequently  mentioned  and  will  again  be  referred  to 
in  what  follows.  There  is  no  doubt  a relationship  between 
materials  and  design  and  the  character  and  amount  of 
traffic.  A cinder  road  may  be  perfectly  acceptable  for  a 
park  drive  where  the  traffic  is  light,  but  absolutely  worth- 
less under  heavy  commercial  trucking. 

Resistance  to  traffic  varies  with  different  road  surfaces. 
A smooth  hard  surface  offers  a very  great  deal  less  resist- 
ance than  does  a rough  or  soft  surface.  To  illustrate,  a 
horse  is  said  to  be  able  to  pull  directly  on  the  traces  one- 
tenth  his  own  weight  without  being  overworked.  With  a 
resistance  of  100  pounds  per  ton  (earth  road  in  medium 
condition)  a team  of  horses  weighing  1200  pounds  each 

could  draw  over  a level  road  20xi00  = ^'^  tons-  a 

concrete,  asphalt  or  brick  pavement  having  a tractive  re- 
sistance of  30  pounds  per  ton  the  team  could  draw 


2X1200 

10X30 


= 8 tons. 


In  other  words  the  load  that  can 


be  drawn  is  inversely  as  the  tractive  resistance.  Here  speed 
was  not  considered.  It  was  the  natural  walking  gait  of  the 
horse  about  three  miles  per  hour.  If  the  speed  is  greater 
the  load  must  be  cut  down  proportionally.  With  a truck 
the  direct  pull  is  the  effective  power  of  the  engine  in  foot- 
pounds per  minute  divided  by  distance  in  feet  per  minute ; 
and  the  load  that  can  be  drawn  is  the  direct  pull  times  the 
tractive  resistance.  Thus  if  a truck  may  exert  h effective 
horse  power=  33,000k  foot-pounds  per  minute,  and  the 
speed  is  v miles  per  hour,  the  load  T,  in  tons,  that  may  be 


256  Planning  Highway  Systems 


hauled  on  a road  having  a tractive  resistance  of  t pounds 
per  ton,  is 

33,000 h 375 h 
1 ~ 5280v  vt  ‘ 

60 

Therefore  a truck  of  20  effective  horse-power  will  haul  over 
a road  whose  tractive  resistance  is  100  pounds  per  ton  at 
a speed  of  10  miles  per  hour  a load  of 


T = 


375X20 

10X100- 


and  on  a smooth  road  with  a tractive  resistance  of  30 
pounds  per  ton  at  the  same  speed,  25  tons,  or  the  same 
load  7.5  tons  may  be  drawn  at  a speed  of  33  1/3  miles  per 
hour. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  when  the  speed  is  increased 
the  tractive  resistance  is  likewise  increased.  The  air  re- 
sistance is  in  about  the  ratio  of  the  square  of  the  velocity, 
so  that  33  miles  per  hour  would  be  too  great  in  the  last 
case. 

Experiments  to  determine  the  tractive  resistance  due  to 
the  surface  vary  considerably,  for  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
like  conditions  of  surface  smoothness  and  cleanliness,  to 
say  nothing  of  hardness.  The  tractive  resistance  will  with 
some  materials  vary  with  the  temperature.  That  of  sheet 
asphalt,  for  example,  may  be  twice  as  much  in  summer  as 
in  winter.  The  tractive  resistance  may  not  be  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  load  although  it  is  customary  to  express 
it  in  pounds  per  ton.  It  is  conceivable  that  a heavy  load 
because  it  sinks  into  the  road  crust  may  require  a greater 
number  of  pounds  to  move  it  than  a light  load  that  does  not 
greatly  sink  in.  This  also  leads  to  the  effect  of  width  of 
tire  and  diameter  of  wheel.  Many  experiments  have  shown 
the  tractive  force  to  be  less  with  wide  than  narrow  tires, 
due,  no  doubt,  to  the  unequal  sinking  into  the  road  crust. 
Likewise  wheels  ought,  for  the  same  reason,  to  show 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


257 


less  resistance  for  large  diameters;  in  fact  some  engineers 
give  it  as  varying  inversely  as  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 

The  results  of  tests,  while  varying  much,  show  in  a gen- 
eral way,  the  direct  pull  necessary  to  draw  a load  at  slow 
speed  on  the  level  in  well-lubricated  wagons  to  be  approxi- 
mately as  follows : 


Lbs.  per  Ton 

yu  = coefficient 
of  Resistance 

Upon  Steel  rails 

10 

1/200 

Sheet  asphalt,  good  condition 
Asphaltic  macadam  or  con- 

20 

1/100 

crete,  good  condition 

20 

1/100 

Concrete,  good  condition .... 

20 

1/100 

Brick,  good  condition 

Broken  stone  water-bound 

20 

1/100 

macadam,  good  condition . . 

30 

3/200 

Gravel,  good  condition 

30 

3/200 

Sand  clay,  good  condition . . . 

60 

3/100 

Earth,  best  condition 

67 

1/30 

Earth,  medium  condition. . . . 

100 

1/20 

Earth,  poor  condition 

300 

3/20 

Resistance  Due  to  Grade. — The  resistance  due  to  grade 
is  just  as  marked  as  that  due  to  surface.  The  work  neces- 
sary to  draw  a load  up  an  inclined  plane  is  the  same  as  that 
of  drawing  on  a level  along  the  base  of  the  plane  and  lift- 
ing it  directly  up  to  the  height  of  the  plane.  A mathe- 
matical analysis9  based  upon  this  fact  leads  to  the  formulas : 
For  a horse-drawn  load, 


= 

M+0 


(1) 


For  a tractor, 


• • (2) 


9 See  “Highway  Engineering,”  by  G.  E.  Chatburn,  pp.  22  to  28, 
Wiley  & Sons,  New  York,  publishers. 


258 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


For  an  automobile  or  truck, 


(3) 


where  L = weight  of  load  drawn,  including  weight  of  vehicle 
(subtract  weight  of  vehicle  for  net  load); 

H = weight  of  horse ; 

T = weight  of  tractor; 

P = effective  tractive  force  exerted  (available  engine 
effort) ; 

H = coefficient  of  road  resistance; 

g = grade  (gradient)  = tangent  of  angle  of  incline, 
nearly  the  same  for  small  angles  as  the  sine  of 
the  angle  of  incline,  that  is,  the  height  of  the 
incline  divided  by  its  length; 

2 = the  direct  pull  of  the  horse  divided  by  the  weight 
of  the  horse; 

h = horse-power  = work  of  33,000  ft. -lb.  per  minute. 

v = velocity  in  miles  per  hour. 


Equation  (3)  indicates  that  the  load,  including  its  own 
weight,  that  a truck  or  an  automobile  can  draw  varies  di- 
rectly as  the  horse-power  exerted  effectively,  and  inversely 
as  the  velocity.  Also  it  decreases  as  the  coefficient  of  road 
resistance,  fi,  and  the  gradient  g increases. 

The  resistance  coefficient,  /*,  may  include  axle  or  internal 
resistance  of  the  vehicle  plus  road  surface  resistance  plus 
air  resistance.  The  axle  resistance  is  nearly  a constant,  the 
road  resistance  likewise,  but  the  air  resistance  depends 
upon  the  speed  v,  varying  approximately  as  the  square  of 
the  velocity.  W.  S.  James,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Automotive  Engineers , June,  1921,  uses  the  formula 

F—CAV2 


where  F=the  wind  force  in  pounds; 

C= a constant,  varies  from  .003  to  .004; 

A= frontal  area  of  automobile  in  square  feet 
approximately  26 ; 

V— velocity  in  miles  per  hour. 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


259 


His  researches  show  that  the  available  engine  effort  P 
of  equation  (3)  or  horse  power  h is  not  quite  constant  but 
varies  with  the  speed.  His  table  follows : 


Car  Speed 
m.p.h. 

Available  Engine  Effort 
Per  1000  lb.  of  Car 
Weight,  Lbs. 

Air  Resistance  Per  1000  lb. 
of  Car  Weight,  Lbs. 

15 

107.3 

4.9 

16 

105.2 

6.8 

20 

107.6 

8.8 

25 

106.0 

13.4 

30 

103.9 

19.2 

35 

101.2 

26.0 

40 

98.0 

34.1 

45 

94.1 

43.4 

50 

86.8 

53.8 

Returning  to  Equation  (3)  which  has  been  plotted  in 
two  different  ways  on  page  260,  it  may  be  seen  that 
the  load  that  can  be  hauled  up  a grade  decreases  with  the 
per  cent  of  grade  very  rapidly  for  the  roads  having  a small 
coefficient  of  resistance  and  very  much  less  rapidly  for 
larger  resistances.  For  example,  on  steel  rails,  resistance 
10  pounds  per  ton,  ^=1/200,  a 1 per  cent  grade  reduces  the 
load  to  one-third  the  load  that  may  be  hauled  on  the  level,  and 
a 5 per  cent  grade  reduces  it  to  less  than  one-tenth  of  the 
same  load.  With  a good  asphalt,  brick  or  concrete  road, 
resistance  20  pounds  per  ton,  /*= 1/100,  a 1 per  cent  grade 
reduces  the  load  to  one-half,  while  a 5 per  cent  grade  re- 
duces it  to  about  one-sixth  the  load  that  can  be  drawn  on 
a level  road.  While  for  an  earth  road  in  bad  condition  or 
a dry  sand  road,  300  pounds  per  ton  resistance,  ^=3/20, 
a five  per  cent  grade  only  reduces  the  level  grade  load  by 
one-fourth.  This  shows  clearly  that  the  better  the  road 
surface  the  less  the  grade  must  be  in  order  to  benefit  by  it. 
The  plots  on  page  260  show  the  same  thing  in  differ- 
ent ways,  and  also  that  the  maximum  load  that  can 
be  hauled  with  a given  force  at  a constant  speed  is  greater, 
no  matter  what  the  grade,  on  the  better  types  of  roads  than 


260 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


Graphical  representation  of  the  effect,  of  grade  on  the  load  that 
can  be  drawn. 


Graphical  representation  of  the  effect  of  road  resistance  on  the 
load  that  may  be  drawn. 


RESISTANCE  POUNDS  PER 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


261 


on  the  poorer,  but  that  the  very  great  advantages  due  to 
hard  roads  come  with  the  better  type  of  roads.  In- 
cidentally this  plot  shows  that  the  load  that  may  be  hauled, 
other  things  being  equal,  on  steel  tracks,  is  very  much 
greater  than  that  that  can  be  hauled  on  the  best  hard  sur- 
faced road  with  same  power,  therefore  it  will  never  be 
possible  to  haul  loads  on  highways  as  cheaply  as  on  rail- 
ways unless  the  operating  expenses  on  the  highways  can 
be  made  materially  less  than  on  railways. 

Slipperiness. — Road  surfaces  which  become  slippery  not 
only  decrease  the  tractive  effort  of  horses  and  motors  but 
are  very  dangerous  also.  Non-slipperiness  ought  then  to 
be  given  weight  in  the  selection  of  the  type  of  roadway. 
Observations  in  London  in  1873  by  Heywood  on  slipperi- 
ness of  pavements  indicated  granite-block  most  slippery, 
then  asphalt  and  wood-block.  Greene,  in  1885,  analyzing 
a series  of  observations  made  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States,  gave  the  order  of  slipperiness  as  wood-block, 
granite-block,  and  sheet-asphalt. 

Slipperiness  increases  with  grade.  A special  committee 
upon  road  materials  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers  10  recommend  the  following  maximum  grades  for 
various  kinds  of  pavements : 


Kinds  of  Roadway 


Maximum  Grade 
Per  Cent 


Gravel 

Broken  stone 

Bituminous  surface 

Bituminous  macadam 

Bituminous  concrete 

Sheet  asphalt 

Cement  concrete 

Brick,  cement  grout  filler 

Brick,  bituminous  filler 

Stone-block,  cement  grout  filler 
Stone-block,  bituminous  filler . . 
Wood-block 


12 

12 

6 

8 

8 

5 
8 

6 
12 

9 

15 

4 


“Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Proceedings,  1918,  p.  2327. 


262 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


This  would  indicate  that  in  the  belief  of  the  committee 
slipperiness  is  about  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  grades. 
Those  on  which  the  steepest  grades  are  allowed  being  the 
least  slippery. 

Climatic  conditions  affect  slipperiness.  Roads  which  are 
non-slippery  in  dry  weather  may  be  very  slippery  in  wet 
weather.  Pavements  having  a small  amount  of  clay  or 
earth  on  them  are  quite  slippery  when  dampened,  but  after 
a hard  rain  may  be  much  less  slippery.  Earth  roads  that 
have  been  thoroughly  dragged  are  much  more  slippery 
immediately  after  a small  shower  than  after  a hard  or  soak- 
ing rain.  Stone  blocks  and  brick  are  worse  after  they  have 
worn  turtle-backed.  Ice  and  sleet  render  all  pavements 
slippery,  but  some  more  than  others. 

Sanitariness. — The  sanitariness  of  a road  is  the  measure 
of  the  effect  it  has  on  the  health  of  its  users  and  the 
dwellers  along  its  side.  A dusty  road  is  ordinarily  an  un- 
sanitary one  because  of  the  germs  of  disease  carried  on  the 
dust  particles  and  which  may  be  widely  spread  by  the  wind. 
An  earth  or  gravel  road  when  not  dry  or  dusty  is  a sanitary 
road.  A concrete  or  asphalt  pavement  when  clean  is  very 
sanitary,  but  because  dirt  and  debris  brought  upon  it  soon 
becomes  ground  into  dust  may  become  more  unsanitary 
than  an  earth  road.  Mud,  when  clean,  if  that  expression 
may  be  allowed,  is  sanitary,  but  when  mixed  on  the  road 
with  the  droppings  of  animals,  sputum  and  other  unclean 
things  may  become  very  unsanitary. 

Noisiness. — Noisiness  is  a real  source  of  disease, 
especially  mental  disorders.  The  less  noisy  types  of  pave- 
ment are  usually  laid  in  front  of  hospitals. 

Acceptability. — The  acceptability  of  a roadway  depends 
in  addition  to  the  things  mentioned  on  its  looks,  ap- 
pearance, esthetics ; on  the  degree  of  heat  and  light  which  it 
reflects ; upon  its  springiness  and  comfortableness  to  travel 
over  as  well  as  its  easiness  upon  horses’  feet  and  rubber 
tires. 


CROWNING  A CALIFORNIA  DIRT  ROAD  WITH  TRACTOR 
DRAWN  GRADES 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


263 


Some  Types  of  Roads  and  Their  Qualities. — Earth 
Roads. — The  good  qualities  are:  low  first  cost,  not 
slippery,  noiseless,  easy  on  horses’  feet  and  on  rubber  tires, 
comfortable  when  in  first-class  condition.  The  poor  quali- 
ties are : high  tractive  resistance,  not  durable,  high  cost  of 
maintenance  when  traffic  becomes  dense,  requiring  constant 
attention  to  be  kept  in  good  condition,  difficult  to  clean, 
muddy  in  wet  weather,  dusty  in  dry  weather,  choppy  when 
dust  blows  away,  rut  easily,  wear  down  rapidly  under 
heavy  traffic  especially  in  windy  localities,  uncomfortable 
except  when  in  prime  condition.  Adaptability : Satisfac- 
tory for  light  or  medium  traffic  when  properly  drained  and 
constantly  maintained.  It  will  probably  pay  to  put  in 
better  roads  when  the  traffic  amounts  to  more  than  400 
vehicle-tons  per  day. 

Sand-clay  Roads.- — The  good  and  poor  qualities  are  about 
the  same  as  for  earth  roads.  In  fact  they  are  earth  roads 
with  a selected  mixture  of  sand  and  clay.  They  are  more 
durable,  harder  and  smoother  than  the  ordinary  earth 
road.  They  are  appropriate  for  a light  or  medium  traffic 
and  are  especially  adaptable  for  sandy  stretches  or  over 
clay  or  gumbo  soils.  The  cost  will  depend  upon  the  avail- 
ability of  materials ; the  cost  of  maintenance  should  be  no 
more  or  very  little  more  than  earth  roads.  They  should  be 
good  up  to  800  vehicle-tons  per  day. 

Gravel  Roads. — The  good  qualities  are:  moderately  hard, 
compact,  and  smooth,  not  slippery,  noiseless,  easy  on 
horses’  feet,  and  not  very  hard  on  tires,  not  muddy,  are 
comfortable,  and  low  in  first  cost.  Poor  qualities:  rut 
rather  easily  and  require  constant  attention  to  keep  them 
in  first-class  condition,  dusty  in  dry  weather.  Gravel 
sometimes  becomes  loose  on  top  and  rolls  under  fast  mov- 
ing vehicles,  causing  skidding.  When  not  thoroughly  com- 
pacted gravel  roads  have  high  tractive  resistance.  They 
are  particularly  well  adapted  to  country  roads  under 
medium  traffic,  especially  where  gravel  may  be  obtained  at 


264 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


a reasonable  cost  near  at  hand.  At  the  present  time  more 
miles  of  gravel  roads  than  of  any  other  type  of  surface 
are  being  constructed  in  the  United  States.  This  is  because 
of  their  low  first  cost  and  general  satisfactory  character 
for  medium  traffic.  -- 

Macadam  Roads. — Moderate  first  cost  and  when  well 
compacted  smooth  but  not  slippery.  They  require  new 
dust  continually  to  keep  the  stones  cemented  together. 
Under  rubber  tires  the  dust  is  not  worn  off  the  stones  and 
what  little  there  is  on  the  roadway  is  picked  up  and  spread 
to  the  winds.  If  covered  with  tar  or  asphaltic  oil  the 
stones  cement  together  and  form  excellent  roadways  under 
medium  traffic,  where  there  are  no  extremely  heavy  trucks 
to  cut  through  the  surface.  Traffic  up  to  1200  vehicle-tons 
per  day  is  accommodated  well  by  these  roads. 

Bituminous  macadam  roads  are  ordinary  macadam  roads 
impenetrated  with  bituminous  materials.  When  well  made 
they  are  excellent  roadways,  and  unless  extremely  heavy 
trucking  comes  upon  them  ought  to  prove  satisfactory  for 
medium  to  moderately  heavy  traffic. 

Bituminous  Concrete  Roads  are  made  of  broken  stone 
mixed  with  a bituminous  cement  before  laying  and  rolling. 
They,  like  bituminous  macadam,  are  smooth,  non-slippery, 
easy  riding,  have  small  tractive  resistance  and  the  first  cost 
and  cost  of  maintenance  are  moderate.  Such  roads  have 
proven  very  satisfactory  where  the  traffic  is  dense  but  not 
composed  of  real  heavy  units.  On  account  of  their  dust- 
lessness  and  general  sanitary  character  as  well  as  for 
their  durability  they  are  deservedly  popular. 

Brick  Roads. — Vitrified  paving  brick  give  a hard  durable 
surface,  reasonably  smooth  and  not  slippery.  The  cost  of 
maintenance  is  low  and  the  appearance  is  good.  Brick 
roads  are  expensive  as  a heavy  concrete  foundation  is 
necessary,  and  they  are  noisy.  Thejr  are  well  adapted  for 
heavy  hauling. 

Concrete  Roads. — This  type  of  roadway  is  rapidly  forg- 
ing to  the  front.  With  the  exception  of  gravel  it  leads  in 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


265 


mileage  of  hard-surfaced  roads.  When  made  of  good  con- 
crete sufficiently  thick  it  has  proven  itself  to  be  durable, 
hard,  smooth,  of  small  tractive  resistance,  comfortable,  and 
not  particularly  expensive  in  first  cost  or  maintenance. 

With  horse-drawn  iron-tired  vehicles  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
would  prove  as  durable  as  some  other  types  but  for  rubber 
tired  motorized  vehicles  it  seems  to  be  extremely  well 
adapted.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  this  type  will  con- 
tinue to  be  popular.  It  has  a tendency  to  crack  under  the 
action  of  temperature  and  moisture.  It  is  customary  to 
fill  these  cracks  with  tar,  pitch  or  asphalt,  giving  an  ap- 
pearance which  some  people  think  not  pleasing.  The  pave- 
ment is  rigid  and  noisy,  therefore  objectionable  for  some 
localities. 

Creosoted  Wood  Block  Roads. — Wood  blocks  treated 
with  creosote  to  preserve  them  from  decay  make  an  ex- 
cellent pavement.  They  are  smooth,  durable,  noiseless  and 
sanitary,  have  small  tractive  resistance  and  are  comfortable 
to  ride  upon.  The  principal  objection  is  their  habit  of 
“bleeding”  in  the  summer  time.  The  sticky  oil  tar  that 
oozes  out  is  very  objectionable,  as  it  adheres  to  shoes  and 
is  tracked  into  houses.  The  first  cost  is  considerable,  but 
maintenance  is  low  for  many  years  after  laying.  Wood 
block  roadways  seem  well  adapted  for  bridge  floors,  fox- 
stable  and  shop  floors,  and  for  heavy  teaming  when  placed 
on  a substantial  concrete  foundation.  They  seem  to  last 
better  for  a moderate  or  semi-heavy  use;  when  left  idle 
they  are  more  subject  to  decay. 

Asphalt  Block  Roads  have  proven  satisfactory  for  both 
country  and  city  roads  where  the  traffic  is  reasonably 
heavy.  They  are  laid  on  both  cement  concrete  and 
asphaltic  concrete  bases.  They  are  smooth,  easy  riding, 
have  light  tractive  resistance,  are  not  very  noisy,  and  are 
sanitary.  The  dark  color  is  rather  pleasing. 

Sheet  Asphalt  Roads  and  Streets,  considei’ing  their  cost, 
durability,  smoothness,  ease  of  riding,  low  tractive  resist- 
ance, and  general  acceptability,  are  among  the  most 


v. 


266  Planning  Highway  Systems 

popular  roads.  What  has  been  said  of  sheet  asphalt  will 
apply  to  asphaltic  concrete  of  the  Topeka  specification  and 
bitulithic  types.  The  road  is  better  for  use.  The  asphalt 
and  sand  surface  has  the  habit  of  swelling  and  cracking 
when  not  used.  The  proportioning  and  laying  of  a sheet 
asphalt  surface  is  a particular  job  and  requires  a person 
of  technical  knowledge  and  experience  to  do  it  properly. 
Sheet-asphalt  pavements  seem  well  adapted  for  city  streets 
and  roads  where  there  is  a medium  or  dense  traffic.  With  a 
firm  foundation  it  stands  up  well  under  the  heaviest  traffic. 
Its  popularity  is  truly  deserved.  The  pavement  under 
some  conditions  of  moisture  is  inclined  to  be  slippery  but 
when  dry  is  not.  Neither  is  it  very  noisy. 

Miscellaneous. — There  are  numerous  other  types  of  roads 
that  have  their  proper  uses  in  many  localities.  Burned 
clay,  shell,  furnace  slag,  coal  slack,  cinders,  plank, 
corduroy,  hay,  bagasse,  and  possibly  other  materials  have 
and  will  continue  to  be  used  with  more  or  less  success. 
The  proper  places  for  their  use  will  depend  upon  local 
conditions  which  every  good  engineer  always  takes  into 
account  before  deciding  upon  a type  of  roadway. 

Comparison  of  Roads. — In  order  to  compare  the  relative 
merits  of  different  types  of  roads  weights  are  usually  given 
to  the  different  qualities  entering  into  the  roadway  that 
they  may  be  compared  with  a predetermined  ideal.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  such  tables  apply  only  to  the 
particular  road  for  which  they  are  made  out.  No  two  can 
be  exactly  alike. 

Here  is  one  adapted  from  the  author’s  work  on  “High- 
way Engineering.”11 

11  ‘ ‘ Highway  Engineering — Rural  Roads  and  Pavements,  ’ ’ by 
George  R.  Chatburn,  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


267 


Comparative  Table  op  Several  Types  of  Roadway  for  Some 
Particular  Locality 


Qualities 

Ideal  Road  for  this 
Particular  Location 

Best  Earth  Road 

Sand  Clay  Road 

Gravel  Road 

Macadam  Road 

Brick  Road 

Concrete  Road 

Asphalt  Block 

Creosoted  Wood  Block 

Bituminous  Concrete 

Sheet  Asphalt 

Low  first  cost 

20 

20 

16 

16 

15 

10 

12 

10 

8 

14 

13 

Low  cost  of  maintenance 

20 

15 

15 

10 

8 

9 

8 

8 

10 

8 

10 

Ease  of  traction 

10 

1 

4 

6 

8 

10 

10 

9 

9 

9 

10 

Non-slipperiness . . 

10 

9 

9 

9 

9 

8 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

Noiselessness 

5 

5 

5 

5 

4 

1 

1 

2 

4 

2 

2 

Healthfulness 

Freedom  from  dust  and 

10 

5 

5 

6 

8 

9 

9 

9 

8 

9 

9 

mud 

10 

1 

2 

3 

4 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Comfortable  to  use 

10 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

8 

9 

9 

9 

9 

Appearance 

5 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

Total 

100 

61 

63 

63 

66 

69 

66 

66 

67 

70 

72 

Tilson  gives  the  following  weights  for  city  pavements 
having  heavy  traffic  :12 


Pavement  Qualities 

Per- 

cent- 

age 

Granite 

Block 

Wood 

Block 

Brick 

Sheet 

Asphalt 

Bitu- 

lithic 

Cheapness 

14 

8 

8 

13 

14 

12 

Durability 

21 

21 

16 

12 

15 

15 

Easiness  of  cleaning .... 

15 

10 

14 

15 

14 

14 

Light  resistance  to  traffic 

15 

13 

14 

15 

11 

12 

Non-slipperiness 

7 

7 

4 

6 

5 

6 

Ease  of  maintenance . . . 

10 

10 

8 

6 

6 

6 

Favorableness  to  travel . 

5 

2 

5 

3 

4 

4 

Sanitariness 

13 

9 

13 

10 

12 

12 

Total 

100 

80 

82 

80 

81 

81 

Less  cheapness 

72 

74 

67 

67 

69 

““American  Highway  Engineers’  Handbook,’’  p.  1360,  Wiley  & 
Sons,  New  York. 


£68  Planning  Highway  Systems 

The  Forest  Service  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture presents  the  following  table: 


Pavement  Qualities 

Per- 

cent- 

age 

Granite 

Block 

Sheet 

Asphalt 

Brick 

Mac- 

adam 

Wood 

Block 

Cheapness 

14 

4 

61 

7 

14 

4l 

Durability 

20 

20 

10 

121 

6 

14 

Ease  of  maintenance. . . 

10 

91 

71 

81 

41 

91 

Ease  of  cleaning 

14 

10 

14 

12± 

6 

14 

Low  resistance  to  traffic 

14 

81 

14 

121 

8 

14 

Non-slipperiness 

7 

51 

31 

51 

61 

4 

Favorableness  to  travel 

4 

21 

4 

3 

3 

31 

Acceptability 

4 

2 

31 

21 

21 

4 

Sanitary  qualities 

13 

9 

13 

101 

41 

121 

100 

71 

76 

741 

55 

80 

Crosby  gives  three  sets  of  ideal  crusts  for  country  roads : 
V for  main  roads,  carrying  a fairly  heavy  mixed  traffic, 
W,  secondary  roads  carrying  moderate  traffic,  and  X on 
minor  roads  with  light  farm  travel  almost  wholly.13 


Components 

Ideal 

Brick 

Plain 

Cement 

Con- 

crete 

Bitumi- 

nous 

Mac- 

adam 

Water- 

bound 

Mac- 

adam 

V 

IF 

X 

First  cost,  cheapness . . . 

15 

15 

15 

8 

10 

10 

15 

Maintenance,  cheapness 

25 

25 

20 

25 

20 

20 

10 

Durability 

7 

7 

7 

7 

5 

5 

3 

Ease  of  maintenance . . . 

8 

10 

10 

7 

8 

8 

10 

Cleanliness 

5 

5 

5 

3 

3 

5 

2 

Low  tractive  resistance . 

10 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

Non-slipperiness 

10 

10 

10 

4 

7 

5 

10 

Sanit.ariness 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

5 

3 

Noiselessness 

5 

5 

5 

3 

3 

5 

4 

Acceptability 

5 

5 

8 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Favorableness  to  travel . 

5 

8 

10 

3 

5 

6 

8 

Total 

100 

100 

100 

71 

72 

77 

74 

“ ‘ ‘ The  Scientific  Selection  of  Pavements,  ” by  W.  W.  Crosby,  in 
Municipal  Journal,  May  29,  1913. 


Planning  Highway  Systems  269 

Anderson  gives  the  following  economical  table  to  assist 
in  arriving  at  a proper  type  of  surfacing : 14 


Method  of  Making  Economical  Comparison  of  Road  Surfaces 


Item 

Possible  Types  of  Surfacing 

A 

B 

C 

Estimated  life  of  surface  with  proper 
maintenance,  years 

4 

8 

12 

Original  construction  cost  per  mile 

$ 8,000 

$15,000 

$30,000 

Annual  charges  for  interest,  depreciation 
and  resurfacing 

2,364 

2,528 

3,797 

Cost  of  maintaining  surface  per  mile, 
average,  annual 

1,000 

750 

200 

Total  cost  per  mile  at  end  of  12th  year, 
period 

40,368 

39,336 

47,964 

Value  of  road  surface  per  mile  at  end  of 
12th  year  period 

7,500 

12,000 

Net  outlay  per  mile  of  road 

40,368 

32,836 

35,964 

The  choice  of  selection  here  is  evidently  between  B and 
C,  with  the  figures  so  close  together  that  the  one  with  the 
least  number  of  uncertainties  would  probably  be  adopted 
if  economy  is  the  determining  factor. 

Another  method  of  making  economical  comparisons  is 
shown  in  the  table  and  plot  following: 


Item 

1 , 

Earth 

Road 

2 

Gravel 

Road 

3 

Bitumi- 
nous 
Mac- 
adam 
and  con- 
crete 

4 

Portland 

Cement 

Concrete 

5 

Sheet 

Asphalt 

Bitu- 

lithic 

6 

Brick 

Stone 

Block 

7 

Wood 

Block 

First  cost  per  mile . 
Annual  Interest, 

SI, 000 

$5,000 

$10,000 

$20,000 

$30,000 

$40,000 

$50,000 

5 per  cent 

Annual  Mainten- 

50 

250 

500 

1,000 

1,500 

2,000 

2,500 

ance 

250 

250 

500 

100 

100 

50 

50 

Life  of  surface,  yrs . 

0 

5 

10 

20 

20 

25 

25 

Cost  of  resurfacing 
Annual  Sinking 

$ 0 

$2,500 

$5,000 

$15,000 

$15,000 

$25,000 

$35,000 

Fund  3^  per  cent. . 

0 

466 

427 

530 

530 

884 

899 

Anual  Total  Cost . . 

300 

966 

1,427 

1,630 

2,130 

2,934 

3,449 

Daily  Cost,  per  mile 

0.82 

2.74 

3.90 

4.45 

5.84 

8.03 

9.46 

““Modern  Road  Building  and  Maintenance,”  by  Andrew  P. 
Anderson. 


270 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


.0040 


Plot  showing  cost  of  several 
types  of  roads  under  vary- 
ing traffic  density.  When 
the  traffic  density  oh  road 
No.l.  (Earth  and  sand  day) 
becomes  greater  than  300  or 

*700  vehicles  per  day  the 
curve  would  turn  up  because 
the  maintenance  costs  would 
be  increased.  Similarly  for 
Nos.  Z.  and  3 for  1600  to 
ZOOO  vehicles  per  day 


400 


goo  i zoo  /boo  zooo 

VEHICLES  PER  DAY 


w 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


271 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

“American  Civil  Engineers’  Pocket-Book,”  Sec.  15,  Art.  4,  John 
Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

“American  Highway  Engineers’  Handbook,”  p.  1360,  John  Wiley 
& Sons,  New  York. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  Proceedings,  1918,  p.  2327. 

Anderson,  Andrew  P.,  “Modern  Road  Building  and  Main- 
tenance.” Hercules  Powder  Co.,  Chicago. 

Automotive  Industries,  “The  Motor  Bus  Field  as  a Market  for 
Trucks,”  Yol.  XLV,  pp.  627-628,  Sept.  29,  1921;  “Weight 
of  Trucks,”  May  18,  1922. 

Blanchard  and  Drowne,  “Textbook  of  Highway  Engineering,” 
Chap.  II,  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Bullard,  General  Robert  Lee,  “The  Motor  Truck’s  Importance 
on  the  Battle  Front  of  France,”  National  Automobile 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York. 

Chatburn,  George  R.,  “Highway  Engineering — Rural  Roads 
and  Pavements,”  pp.  22-28;  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Collins,  J.  A.,  “Transportation  Surveys  for  Rural  Express 
Routes,  Good  Hoads,  March  17,  1919. 

Cornell  Agricultural  College  Bulletin  No.  205;  Ithaca,  New 
York. 

Crissey,  Forrest,  “Our  New  Transportation  System,”  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  December  16,  1922,  p.  14. 

Crosby,  W.  W.,  “The  Scientific  Selection  of  Pavements,” 
Municipal  Journal,  May  29,  1913. 

Dalton,  James  C.,  “Highways  Must  Be  Made  Self-supporting,” 
Automotive  Industries,  May  25,  1922. 

Good  Roads. — “Benefits  of  a National  Highway  System,”  A 
committee  report  of  the  American  Road  Builders  Associa- 
tion, Jan.  19,  1919. 

Haydock,  Winters,  “The  Pittsburgh  Traffic  Count,”  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Engineering  Society  of  Western  Pennsylvania, 
Vol.  XXVII,  pp.  477-513. 

Hirst,  A.  R.,  “Laying  out  Wisconsin  Trunk  Line  Highways,” 
Good  Roads. 

Horine,  M.  C.,  “Economics  of  Motor  Transport,”  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Automotive  Engineers,  May,  1922. 

James,  E.  W.,  “Distribution  of  Traffic  on  a Rectangular  Sys- 
tem,” Engineering  Record,  Vol.  LXXIV,  p.  439. 

Johnson,  A.  N.,  “The  Traffic  Census,”  Public  Roads,  Dec.,  1920, 
Appendix;  also  p.  16. 

“Traffic  Census  and  its  Use  in  Deciding  Road  Width,” 
Public  Roads,  July,  1921,  p.  7. 


272 


Planning  Highway  Systems 


Jadwin,  Colonel  Edgar,  “Relation  of  the  War  Department  to 
Improved  Highways.”  Bulletin  No.  25  of  the  Texas  Engi- 
neering Experiment  Station,  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  of  Texas,  May  1,  1922,  p.  40. 

MacDonald,  “Classification  and  Uses  of  Highways,”  Engineer- 
ing News-Record,  Vol.  LXXXIII,  pp.  984^985,  635. 

Massachusetts  Highway  Commission  Report,  1912. 

Simonds,  Frank  II.,  “History  of  the  World  War,”  Vol.  I,  p. 
118,  Yol.  Y,  p.  115.  Doubleday,  Page  & Company,  New 
York. 

New  Jersey  State  Highway  Commission,  Committee  Report  on 
Traffic  Census — Engineering  News-Record,  Vol.  LXXXVI, 
p.  338. 

Taylor,  Colonel  B.,  “Similarity  of  Military  and  Commercial 
Motor  Transportation,”  National  Automobile  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  New  York. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  “A  Study  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Highway  System,”  Public  Roads,  pp.  124,  136-138, 
196-197,  200-209. 

United  States  Census  Reports. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Statistics 
Bulletin  49.  Bureau  of  Forestry  Bulletin. 


CHAPTER  IX 


EFFECT  OF  EASE  AND  COST  OF  TRANSPORTATION 
ON  PRODUCTION  AND  MARKETING 

The  creation  of  economic  utilities  by  the  application  of 
the  mental  and  physical  powers  of  man  to  the  materials 
of  nature  is  called  production.  Grass  grew  abundantly 
for  thousands  of  years  over  the  great  plains  of  the  Miss- 
issippi valley,  but  there  was  no  production  until  it  was 
utilized  by  the  hand  of  man  for  economical  purposes. 
Just  so  far  as  change  came  to  that  grass  through  the 
application  of  labor,  physical  or  mental,  or  stored  up  in 
capital,  there  was  production.  Productive  activities  may 
be  classified  as  those  which  have  to  do  with:  (1)  a change 
in  form,  (2)  a change  in  place,  (3)  a change  in  the  po- 
tential time  of  use.  Productive  activities  add  to  the 
materials  as  received  other  values,  namely,  form  utilities, 
place  utilities,  and  time  utilities.  The  farmer  though  the 
processes  of  sowing,  cultivating  and  harvesting,  is  instru- 
mental in  changing  the  elements  of  nature  into  grain,  of 
adding  form  utility;  it  is  transported  over  the  roads  and 
railways  to  elevators,  thus  is  added  place  utility ; it  is  there 
stored  until  needed  thereby  the  third  or  time  utility  is 
attached.  In  the  illustration  just  given  wheat  stored  in  the 
bin  is  considered  the  finished  product.  But  a finished  prod- 
uct of  one  productive  activity  may  be  the  raw  product  of 
another.  For  instance,  the  wheat  is  taken  from  the  bin  and 
ground  into  flour,  the  flour  transported  to  the  place  of  stor- 
age, and  held  as  a finished  product  until  it  is  wanted  by  an- 
other productive  activity  in  which  the  flour  is  the  raw  prod- 
uct. The  baker  takes  the  raw  product,  flour,  molds  and 
bakes  it  into  bread,  which  is  held  by  the  merchant  for  sale. 

273 


274  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

The  wheat  thus  has  passed  through  the  three  productive 
processes  three  different  times.  Other  things  may  have 
passed  through  more  before  the  final  consumptive  process 
occurs. 

Production  is  very  commonly  thought  of  as  being  only 
the  first  one  of  the  three  operations,  but  the  changes 
brought  about  by  the  transporter  and  the  merchant  are 
productive  of  economic  wealth  through  the  application  of 
human  physical  and  mental  efforts  hence  are  as  truly  a part 
of  production  as  is  the  first  operation. 

The  factors  which  enter  into  production  are  by  some 
economists  given  as  nature  and  labor,  by  others  as  land, 
labor,  and  capital.  Under  nature  or  land  are  included  all 
natural  elements,  external  to  man,  such  as  the  forces  of 
cohesion,  gravitation,  of  moving  air  and  water,  and  also 
the  stored-up  riches  of  nature.  Under  labor  are  placed  all 
those  things  or  utilities  which  have  been  added  by  the  ap- 
plication of  human  endeavor,  either  mental  or  physical. 
Physical  strength  in  and  of  itself  is  not  sufficient,  for  the 
productive  output  increases  with  mental  strength.  The  ox 
or  the  horse  is  capable  of  exerting  greater  physical  force 
than  is  man,  but  without  the  guiding,  directing  force  of 
man’s  mind  it  would  produce  nothing.  Moral  qualifica- 
tions are  also  placed  under  the  general  heading  “labor”  as 
they  affect  production.  Temperance,  dependability,  pru- 
dence, frugality,  etc.,  have  in  them  productive  elements  of 
importance  the  same  as  the  intellectual  qualifications  of 
quick  perception,  alertness,  imagination  reason  and 
judgment. 

Capital  has  been  frequently  defined  as  stored-up  labor. 
It  is  the  finished  product  of  some  previous  effort,  but  as 
wheat  and  flour  may  be  considered  as  intermediate  prod- 
ucts between  nature  and  bread,  so  capital  may  be  looked 
upon  as  an  intermediate  product  between  nature  and  more 
labor  necessary  to  produce  anew.  “Its  own  origin,  its  exis- 
tence, its  subsequent  action  are  nothing  but  stages  in  the 
continuous  working  of  the  true  elements,  nature  and 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  275 

labor.”1  Capital — raw  materials,  tools,  machines,  build- 
ings, equipment,  means  for  transportation  and  selling, 
stored  products — is  absolutely  essential  to  more  production, 
hence  may  be  considered  as  an  independent  factor,  although 
it  may  have  been  the  product  of  previous  labor  allied  to 
natural  powers. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  readily  seen  that 
transportation  and  marketing  (selling)  are  a part  of  the 
process  of  production.  Transportation  can  be  divided  into 
two  classes : primary,  transportation  upon  the  public 
roads ; and  secondary,  transportation  on  railroads,  canals, 
steamboats  and  steamships.  Marketing  is  likewise  divided 
into  two  classes:  wholesaling  and  retailing.  The  whole- 
saler buys  goods  in  quantity  from  the  manufacturer  and 
sells  them  to  the  jobber  who  in  turn  sells  them  to  the  re- 
tailer. The  jobber  usually  divides  the  larger  purchased 
quantities  into  smaller  or  job  lots  in  any  quantity  suitable 
to  the  retailer.  The  wholesaler  and  the  jobber  may  be  com- 
bined into  one  individual  or  firm.  The  jobber  will,  usually, 
not  sell  directly  to  the  consumer ; he  sells  only  to  retailers. 
The  retailers  frequently  have  a sort  of  “gentlemen’s” 
agreement  with  the  jobber  not  to  buy  directly  from  the 
producer.  This  sort  of  complicated  machinery  often  in- 
volves more  expense  than  direct  trading.  After  each  of  the 
tansactions  mentioned  there  is  usually  a change  of  place 
and  a waiting  in  store. 

Grain  Exchanges. — In  the  grain  business  there  has  been 
developed  a great  system  of  selling  through  commission 
merchants,  that  is,  the  selling  agents  take  commissions  on 
the  sales  for  their  remuneration.  A limited  number  of  the 
commission  merchants  of  a particular  city  organize  them- 
selves into  incorporated  bodies  for  the  purpose  of  provid- 
ing themselves  with  houses  and  facilities  for  doing  business 
and  establishing  rules  for  the  transaction  of  the  same. 
Such  organizations  with  places  of  doing  business  are  known 
as  Grain  Exchanges  or  Boards  of  Trade.  The  Board  of 

1 Bohm-Bawerk,  “Positive  Theory  of  Capital,”  translated  by  W. 
Smart,  p.  96. 


276  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 


Trade  of  Chicago,  the  most  noted  grain  market  in  the  world, 
was  established  in  1846. 

Mr.  Vincent  of  the  Omaha  Grain  Exchange  explains  the 
matter  as  follows  :2 

Suppose  that  a group  of  twenty-five  mule  breeders  in  Missouri 
came  to  Omaha  to  sell  several  hundred  mules,  and  buyers 
assemble  from  several  states.  The  mule  dealers  find  a vacant 
lot  in  a convenient  locality  and  secure  permission  to  use  it  tem- 
porarily. It  is  the  mule  market,  or  mule  exchange.  The  buyers 
and  sellers  meet  and  dicker,  each  trying  to  secure  the  best  bargain 
he  can.  Every  purchase  or  sale  is  an  individual  transaction — be- 
tween one  seller  and  one  buyer.  The  vacant  lot  or  “mule  ex- 
change” has  nothing  to  do  in  the  transaction — it  occupies  no 
place  in  the  trade.  It  is  simply  the  location  where  the  traders 
gather  for  their  own  convenience.  If  the  traders  hire  a clerk 
to  act  for  all  in  settling  the  trades  and  collecting  the  money,  it 
is  simply  because  the  clerk  has  the  knowledge  of  a technical 
nature  not  possessed  by  all  traders  and  his  employment  is  a con- 
venience to  all  concerned.  He  represents  the  individual  traders 
and  not  the  mule  market. 

Now  translate  mules  into  cars  of  grain  and  the  “vacant  lot” 
into  a board  of  trade  building  erected  for  the  convenience  of 
traders  engaged  in  a permanent  business.  The  transactions  held 
on  the  board  of  trade  are  the  individual  trades  between  the  in- 
dividual seller  and  buyers,  just  the  same  as  in  the  mule  market. 
The  board  of  trade  is  simply  the  location  where  buyers  come  to 
meet  sellers  (of  their  agents  the  commission  men.) 

Vincent’s  theory  that  the  board  of  trade  is  the  “location 
where”  is  hardly  inclusive  enough,  for  only  a favored 
few  who  have  ‘ ‘ purchased  seats  ’ ’ or  are  stockholders  of  the 
incorporation  are  privileged  to  buy  and  sell  on  the  board 
of  trade,  that  is,  are  a part  of  an  organization  known  as  a 
board  of  trade.  His  own  pamphlet  states  that  he  is  a 
“Member  of  the  Omaha  Grain  Exchange.” 

Vincent  defines  a commission  merchant  as  “the  agent 
of  men  (1)  who  do  not  have  enough  grain  to  sell  so  they 

2 ‘ ‘ Letters  on  Grain  Marketing  Problems,  ” by  C.  Vincent,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Farmers’  Grain  Company,  Author  of  Nebraska  Co-opera- 
tive Law,  and  Member  of  the  Omaha  Grain  Exchange,  pamphlet  pri- 
vately published,  1921. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  277 

can  afford  the  time  and  expense  to  come  with  the  grain  So 
as  personally  to  make  the  sale,  and  (2)  who  would  be  meet- 
ing strangers  and  who  would  not  know  which  of  the  buyers 
might  want  the  particular  kind  or  grade  he  might  have  for 
sale.”  He  contends  that  it  is  not  only  an  economy  to  the 
seller  to  employ  the  services  of  the  commission  merchant 
but  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  selling  done  by  some 
one  ‘ ‘ who  knows  who  the  buyers  are  in  the  various  lines — 
corn,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat  of  the  different  kinds  and 
qualities,”  and  who  knows  “the  inspection  rules  and  sees 
that  the  grain  is  properly  graded — in  short  ’ ’ one  who  1 ‘ does 
for  his  employer,  or  principal,  all  those  things  that  he 
would  do  for  himself  if  he  were  in  the  central  market  and 
acquainted  with  the  buyers.  ’ ’ 

Vincent  upholds  the  custom  of  dealing  in  futures,  as  it 
furnishes  a sort  of  insurance  to  the  legitimate  dealer  in 
grain.  When  the  local  dealer  buys,  say,  10,000  bushels  of 
wheat  which  by  ordinary  methods  of  business  may  require 
from  two  to  four  weeks  to  get  to  the  terminal  marketing 
point,  he  at  the  same  time  sells  on  board  of  trade  10,000 
bushels  for  future  delivery,  thus  “hedging”  the  purchase. 
If  wheat  goes  up  he  gains  on  the  actual  wheat  in  transit 
but  loses  on  his  hedge.  If  wheat  goes  down  he  loses  on  the 
10,000  bushels  in  transit,  but  gains  on  his  hedge;  thus, 
either  way,  the  one  transaction  balances  the  other  so  there 
is  no  gain,  and  no  loss,  except  the  cost  of  the  hedge,  and 
hence  no  speculation.  Hedging  is,  in  short,  a sort  of  in- 
surance that  protects  the  dealer  should  the  price  of  grain 
fall  between  the  time  he  purchased  it  and  the  time  of  selling 
it  at  the  terminal.  The  process  of  hedging  when  honestly 
carried  on  is  a stabilizing  operation  and  according  to  Vin- 
cent ‘ ‘ effects  the  commercial  transfers  of  grain  from  farmer 
to  miller  at  a less  expense  than  is  involved  in  the  market- 
ing of  any  other  product  of  human  endeavor — at  less  ex- 
pense than  would  be  possible  if  grain  merchants  alone 
carried  all  the  risk — the  speculation.  ’ ’ 

Cooperative  Marketing. — Cooperative  marketing  asso- 
ciations and  the  intermediate  dealer,  that  is  a man  who 


278  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

buys  directly  from  the  producer  and  resells  to  other  pur- 
chasers, are  said  to  have  two  points  of  superiority  over  the 
commission  merchant:  (a)  The  care  and  solicitude  of  the 
owner  replaces  the  zeal  of  the  agent ; (b)  by  combining  the 
products  of  many  they  are  able  to  handle  large  quantities 
and  thus  secure  better  shipping  rates,  and  take  advantage 
of  other  benefits  of  quantity  business.  The  farmer  or  local 
dealer,  or  cooperative  association,  ships  to  the  commission 
merchant  only  in  carload  lots.  The  freight  charge,  now- 
adays, no  matter  what  the  custom  may  have  been  in  the 
past,  is  the  same  whether  one  or  a dozen  cars  are  shipped 
at  a time.  There  may  be  some  favoritism  in  the  securing 
of  cars  when  asked  for  by  the  large  shipper.  The  inspection 
charges  are  fixed  by  law.  The  commission  merchant’s  fee 
is  a percentage  of  the  sale  and  thoroughly  regulated  by 
custom  and  the  rules  of  the  grain  exchange.  The  com- 
mission merchant  being  acquainted  with  buyers  can  usually 
place  all  grain  the  day  it  is  received,  so  the  advantage,  if 
any,  of  an  intermediate  dealer  are  more  in  name  than  in 
reality. 

With  the  idea  of  eliminating  some  of  the  cost  of  market- 
ing cooperative  associations  have  sprung  up  over  the  whole 
country.  While  there  are  many  advantages  of  cooperation, 
such  as  by  pooling  interests,  larger  quantities  can  be 
handled  in  one  bulk,  thus  getting  any  advantage  that  might 
come  in  freight  rates.  Also  where  large  quantities  are 
collected  it  is  practically  always  possible  to  take  care  of 
buyers;  or,  the  agency  may  know  where  to  find  buyers 
when  an  individual  would  not.  The  buyer  for  overseas 
exports  wants  to  get  his  grain  in  as  large  lots  as  possible 
to  reduce  handling  charges.  The  association  usually  has 
facilities  to  examine  and  separate  the  grain  or  other  com- 
modities into  the  several  grades,  and  the  buyer  can  rely 
on  the  grade  being  as  stated  by  the  seller.  In  the  case  of 
some  perishable  goods,  such  as  fruit,  the  association  adver- 
tises freely,  spreading  the  cost  over  many  raisers,  and 
creating  a desire  on  the  part  of  consumers  for  the  associa- 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  279 

tion’s  named  brand  of  fruit.  “Sunkist”  lemons  and 
oranges  and  ‘ ‘ Sun  Maid  ’ ’ raisins  are  household  words  due 
to  extensive  advertising  by  their  respective  cooperative 
associations.  Cooperative  associations  purchase  from  non- 
members and  profits  on  these  purchases  go  to  the  associa- 
tion and  in  due  time  are  distributed  to  its  members.  The 
California  Fruit  Growers’  Exchange  advertises  itself  as 
“A  non-profit  cooperative  organization  of  10,500  growers.” 
The  object  of  all  such  associations  is  two-fold:  (1)  To  de- 

crease the  cost  and  trouble  of  marketing,  and  (2)  to  in- 
crease the  common  desire  for  their  products.  Both  of 
which  will  tend  to  increase  the  grower’s  profits. 

The  grain  merchant,  whether  in  business  as  a dealer  for 
himself,  or  a cooperative  concern  must  have  an  elevator, 
or  place,  where  the  grain  may  be  collected  and  prepared 
for  the  larger  market.  Fruit  dealers  have  houses  for  the 
collection  and  care  of  the  fruit.  Since  these  commodities 
are  collected  a little  from  one,  a little  from  another,  or  for 
ripening,  grading,  or  other  purposes,  they  must  be  kept 
usually  several  days  before  the  car  is  loaded.  After  it  is 
loaded  there  is  quite  a little  time  before  it  reaches  its 
destination.  During  this  time  there  is  money  invested  in 
these  products,  that  is,  capital  is  required.  The  local 
banker  is  called  upon  to  help  finance  the  purchases.  The 
elevator  company  or  fruit  company  has  some  capital,  he 
depends  upon  borrowing  for  more.  The  banks  when  com- 
modities are  freely  moving  are  frequently  severely  taxed 
to  furnish  the  required  money  for  the  movement  of  crops. 
The  banks  at  the  terminal  markets  are  also  stressed  for 
they  are  furnishing  money  to  the  buyers  there,  and  the 
export  commodities  are  paid  for  by  money  from  abroad. 
So  that  many  financial  institutions  are  intimately  inter- 
ested in  the  crop  movement  capital. 

Whenever  a local  dealer  consigns  a car  load  of  wheat  to 
a responsible  merchant  he  can  deposit  the  bill  of  lading 
with  his  banker  and  draw  upon  the  merchant  for  some  90 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  grain,  providing  the  dealer  has 


280  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

hedged  so  that  there  is  no  chance  of  loss.  The  banker  will 
honor  the  dealer’s  checks  and  hold  the  credit  of  the  mer- 
chant as  collateral. 

When  grain  or  other  food  commodities  have  been  stored 
the  warehouse  receipt  is  considered  the  best  possible  col- 
lateral for  bank  loans.  Mr.  Forgan,  president  of  the 
National  City  Bank  of  Chicago,  is  quoted  as  saying:3  “I 
have  seen  the  time  more  than  once  when  high-class  stocks 
and  bonds,  and  even  government  bonds,  could  not  readily 
be  sold,  but  I have  never  seen  the  time,  nor  do  I ever  expect 
to  see  it,  when  anything  that  has  to  be  eaten  could  not  be 
sold.”  The  warehouse  receipts,  therefore,  above  alluded 
to,  constitute  a collateral  which  is  always  available  for  the 
payment  of  debts.  Furthermore,  if  the  grain  or  provisions 
represented  by  the  warehouse  receipts  are  sold  for  future 
delivery,  that  fact  adds  a great  element  of  strength  to  the 
loan,  because  there  is  a third  party  obligated  to  take  the 
grain  at  a certain  time  for  a given  price.  . . . The  sale  for 
future  delivery — the  ‘hedge’ — is  the  final  link  in  the  chain 
that  makes  such  loans  the  best  in  the  world.” 

It  has  been  shown  that  in  the  production  of  grain  or 
other  farm  commodities  the  three  elements,  change  in  form, 
change  in  place,  and  potential  change  in  time  enter ; while 
the  factors  entering  are,  nature,  labor,  and  capital.  These 
all  must  be  present  no  matter  which  method  of  procedure 
is  followed  in  the  marketing.  The  cost  of  marketing  must 
always  be  counted  in  the  cost  of  production.  A decrease 
in  the  cost  of  any  element  or  factor  will  of  course  have  its 
effect  on  the  cost  of  the  whole  process.  For  example,  it  is 
claimed  by  grain  merchants  that  where  there  is  an  oppor- 
tunity to  hedge  there  is  less  risk  and  consequently  the 
profits  of  the  middlemen  may  he  less  thus  decreasing  the 
cost  of  production. 

To  get  a concrete  example  of  what  part  transportation 
bears  in  marketing  the  following  analysis  is  made : 

3 ‘ ‘ Letters  on  Grain  Marketing,  ’ ' by  C.  Vincent. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  281 


Elements  Entering  into  the  Cost  of  Marketing 
Wheat  Grown  in  Kansas  or  Nebraska 

Farm  Expense  Cents  per  bushel 

Loading  0.25 

If  sacked,  add  about  5 cents  per  bushel. 

Highway  Haulage 

A bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates, 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  the  cost 
at  30  cents  per  ton-mile  when  horses  are  used 
and  15  cents  per  ton-mile  by  motor-car,  the 
average  distance  being  9.4  miles,  rough  ave- 


rage, say  6.00  6.25 

Total  cost  of  getting  to  local  market  ....  6.25 

Local  Elevator 


Unloading,  storage,  cleaning,  and  mixing, 
shrinkage.  Overhead — interest  on  investment, 
taxes,  insurance,  office  expense,  depreciation, 


repairs,  hired  help,  etc.,  and  profit 3.00  3.00 

Total  cost  up  to  the  commission  merchant  9.25 

Freight 

Terminal  and  hauling  charge  16.00 

Inspection  and  weighing  at  terminal 25 

Profit  of  commisson  merchant 1.25  17.50 

Total  cost  up  to  the  exporter 26.75 

Exporter’s  cost 

Elevation,  loading  into  boat,  etc 1.25 

Ocean  freight  (very  variable),  say 6.00 

Insurance,  leakage,  etc.,  in  transit 75 

Overhead  expenses  of  exporter  1.00 

Profit  of  exporter 1.25  10.25 


Total  to  Liverpool  market 37.00 


The  above  would  indicate  that  if  all  wheat  were  shipped 
to  Liverpool  the  local  price  in  Nebraska  or  Kansas  should 
be  about  27  cents  per  bushel  below  the  New  York  price  and 
37  cents  below  the  Liverpool  price.  As  a matter  of  fact 
the  Omaha  and  Kansas  City  prices  are  frequently  equal  to 


282  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

or  exceed  the  New  York  prices  because  there  is  quite  a 
large  local  demand  for  wheat  from  the  mills  of  the  Middle 
West.  It  is  said  nearly  one-half  the  Kansas  wheat  is 
milled  in  that  state. 

Highway  Transportation  from  Farm  to  Local  Market. — 

The  table  indicates  that  the  highway  transportation 
amounts  to  about  6 cents  per  bushel.  Had  the  cost  been 
based  on  all  team  hauling  it  would  have  been  8!/2  cents; 
on  truck  hauling,  4f4  cents.  The  grand  total  cost  of  pro- 
duction would  be  the 

Cost  of  growing; 

Cost  of  transportation ; 

Cost  of  marketing. 

Taking  up  only  the  transportation  from  the  farm  to  the 
local  market  point,  the  question  arises,  what,  if  any,  effect 
would  a change  in  it  have  on  the  character  and  amount  of 
farm  production? 

Let  there  be  considered  a zone  around  a local  market 
point ; suppose  the  width  of  this  zone  limited  the  distance 
from  the  market  at  which  wheat  can  be  grown  profitably 
when  the  hauling  is  all  done  by  horses.  Since  it  can,  accord- 
ing to  government  authority,  be  hauled  at  half  the  cost  by 
motor  truck,  other  things  being  equal,  the  zone  of  profitable 
productions  would  be  widened  to  twice  its  former  width 
with  no  greater  expense  to  the  wheat  grower.  Or,  looking  at 
it  another  way,  the  size  of  the  farm  could  be  somewhat 
lessened  and  the  farmer  still  make  the  same  gross  sum  on 
his  crop.  This  latter  would  allow  a few  more  people  to 
live  in  the  same  territory  as  formerly.  If  again  by  means 
of  paved  roads  the  cost  was  further  reduced  one-half  the 
zone  could  again  be  doubled;  it  is  then  four  times  its 
original  width.  Also,  since  a living  could  be  made  on 
smaller  farms  the  tendency  would  be  to  increase  the  rural 
population.  But  it  is  not  likely  that  all  farmers  under  in- 
creased advantages  would  continue  to  raise  wheat.  Other 
crops,  more  perishable  but  more  profitable,  would  venture 
forth. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  283 

Such  perishable  crops  as  vegetables,  head  lettuce, 
tomatoes,  cucumbers,  cantaloupes,  watermelons,  etc.,  re- 
quire dependable  marketing  facilities.  They  must  be  har- 
vested and  put  on  the  market  at  just  the  right  time  or  they 
deteriorate  in  quality  and  price  very  rapidly.  Crops  that 
could  be  hauled  by  team  only  4 or  5 miles  could  be  hauled 
by  truck  over  a hard  road  easily  20  miles.  Near  the  large 
cities  truck  gardeners  by  virtue  of  the  truck  and  the  good 
roads  have  been  able  to  go  out  15  to  20  miles  and  secure 
land  at  a very  much  lower  rent,  or  purchase  it  on  an 
amortization  scheme  at  no  more  annual  expense  for  double 
or  treble  the  amount  of  land  than  they  formerly  paid  in 
rent  near  the  city  for  the  smaller  tract.  According  to 
Norton  outside  the  large  cities  of  the  East  market  garden- 
ing extends  back  25  to  30  miles.  That  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  haul  vegetables  to  market  in  trucks  40  miles,  and  that 
a New  Jersey  fruit  farmer  was  accustomed  to  make  a 65- 
mile  trip  daily  to  market  his  fruit  in  New  York  City.4 

Likewise  small  fruit  farming.  One  acre  of  land  highly 
cultivated  this  year,  1922,  produced  more  than  $1000 
worth  of  strawberries,  which  were  brought  to  the  railway 
station  every  day  on  a small  truck  a distance  of  15  miles. 
Raspberries  and  blackberries  will  give  almost  as  good  re- 
turns. Vegetables  of  all  kinds,  and  cantaloupes  and  water- 
melons in  favorable  localities,  will  probably  bring  larger 
returns.  Even  potatoes  sometimes  give  a gross  return  of 
from  $100  to  $300  per  acre. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  in  every  case  there  must 
be  a keen,  avid  market  and  adequate  transportation  facili- 
ties. The  market,  since  more  than  half  the  people  of  the 
United  States  live  in  the  cities,  is  likely  to  be  sufficient  if 
the  marketing  machinery  is  ample  and  properly  function- 
ing. Horse-drawn  wagons  may  answer  the  purpose  in  some 
places,  in  others  the  motor  truck,  but  other  crops  cannot 
be  marketed  without  access  to  the  steam  railway.  For  in- 
stance, could  trucks  carry  cantaloupes  from  the  Imperial 

4 “The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  to  Business  Profits,”  by  S.  V. 
Norton,  A.  W.  Shaw  Co.,  Chicago. 


284  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

Valley  in  California  to  New  York  City?  This  requires  the 
steam  railway  and  refrigerator  cars  drawn  in  rapid  trains. 
The  trucks  will  greatly  widen  the  zone  of  cantaloupe  cul- 
ture near  the  shipping  point.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
citrus  fruits  from  Florida  and  California,  tomatoes  and 
watermelons  from  Texas,  plums  from  Idaho,  apples  from 
Washington,  grapes  from  New  York  and  Michigan,  and, 
indeed,  some  product  from  nearly  every  state  of  the  Union, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  non-perishable  products. 

Stock  Raising'. — Marketing  facilities  and  road  transpor- 
tation is  greatly  changing  the  character  of  stock  raising. 
Not  so  very  many  years  ago  the  great  western  plains  were 
covered  with  large  herds  of  cattle  whose  owners  and  care- 
takers were  known  as  ranchers.  The  ranch  usually  con- 
sisted of  the  owner’s  residence,  which  he  also  used  as  an 
office,  sleeping  and  eating  quarters  for  the  cowboys,  a 
corral  or  two  for  the  horses  and  possibly  cattle  during  the 
round-up  and  branding  season,  though  this  latter  was 
usually  on  the  open.  The  cattle  ranged  and  fed  upon  the 
wild  grass,  the  cowboys  riding  around  the  bunch  daily  in 
order  to  keep  track  of  them.  The  round-up  was  held  in  the 
late  summer  while  the  calves  were  still  running  with  their 
mothers  and  could  he  identified.  The  cattle  of  several 
ranches  ran  together  and  at  branding  periods  had  to  be 
cut  out — separated.  Then  the  unbranded  calves  and 

mavericks  were  roped,  thrown  and  branded ; the  bull  calves 
were  altered  and  the  herd  again  turned  loose  upon  the 
prairies.  A little  later  in  the  fall  they  were  again  rounded- 
up  and  those  to  be  sold  selected  and  cut  out.  These  were 
driven  to  the  nearest  railway  track  and  shipped  to  market, 
sometimes  a train  load  from  one  shipping  point.  During 
the  winter  season  and  in  violent  storms  there  were  many 
hardships  as  well  as  loss  of  cattle.  The  cowboys  also  had 
to  be  on  the  lookout  for  “rustlers” — thieves  who  stole  the 
cattle  outright,  branded  unbranded  mavericks  they  knew 
did  not  belong  to  them,  or  mutilated  brands  by  placing 
their  own  over  the  rightful  one. 

Meat  from  these  more  or  less  wild,  grass-fed  animals  was 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  285 

seldom  better  than  second  class,  and  never  brought  on  the 
market  the  equal  of  corn-fed  cattle.  However,  they  did 
furnish  a reasonably  cheap  food  and  kept  down  the  price 
of  meat. 

Along  with  better  roads  and  markets  came  a demand  for 
other  products;  land  that  furnished  the  open  range  was 
fenced  in,  and  later  subdivided  into  farms  upon  which  were 
raised  grain,  hogs,  poultry,  and  perhaps  a few  cattle. 
Dairying  in  many  places  took  the  place  of  stock  raising. 
No  longer  were  the  animals  driven  to  market  on  the  hoof. 
They  were  fattened  upon  grain  and  hay  and  carried  to 
market  in  wagons  and  trucks.  Hogs  replaced  cattle.  The 
turnover  is  more  frequent  and  they  do  well  on  maize,  re- 
quiring no  hay  or  straw  except  perhaps  a very  little  for 
bedding.  The  com  fed  to  hogs  usually  brings  about  twice 
as  much  a bushel  as  that  sold  to  the  dealer. 

Since  about  12  to  15  miles  is  the  greatest  distance  hogs 
may  with  profit  be  hauled  to  market  in  horse-drawn  wagons 
on  dirt  roads,  there  grew  up  at  every  small  railway  station 
a stock  market.  The  railway  company  provided  stockyards, 
a series  of  pens  with  a chute  for  loading.  The  dealers 
bought  from  the  farmers  and  placed  their  animals  in  the 
railway  pens  until  a car  load  was  obtained,  when  they  were 
sent  on  to  the  packing  house  located  in  one  of  the  large 
cities.  Therefore,  between  the  farmer  and  the  packer  there 
were  at  least  two  Middlemen,  the  local  dealer  and  the  com- 
mission merchant  at  the  terminal  stock  yards  which  are 
nominally  under  a different  corporation  than  the  packing 
houses. 

With  the  good  roads  and  the  motor  truck  has  come  much 
marketing  directly  by  the  farmer  at  the  packing-house 
yards.  The  Firestone  Ship  by  Truck  Bureau,  a subsidiary 
organization  of  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Company 
of  Akron,  Ohio,  made  a careful  study  of  the  use  of  the 
truck  in  marketing  live  stock,  and  in  1921  issued  a bulletin 
thereon.5  A detailed  showing  of  the  marketing  of  animals 

“Bulletin  No.  8.  “Marketing  Livestock  by  Motor  Truck,”  issued 
by  The  Firestone  Ship  by  Truck  Bureau,  Firestone  Park,  Akron, 
Ohio,  45  pages. 


286  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

at  St.  Joseph,  Omaha,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianapolis  is 
given.  From  that  bulletin  will  be  copied  some  statistics 
and  other  information  that  may  be  of  interest.  Those 
wishing  the  full  discussion  should  write  for  the  bulletin. 

Tables  are  given  which  “show  that  at  each  yard  the 
driven-in  receipts  during  the  years  1918,  1919,  and  1920 
were  very  much  in  excess  of  those  of  1917.  Of  the  total 
receipts  (the  tables  give  them  each  month  of  the  four 
years)  of  driven-in  hogs  at  the  St.  Joseph  yards  in  1917 
approximately  10  per  cent  were  hauled  to  the  yards  by 
motor  truck.  While  the  driven-in  hog  receipts  at  the  same 
yard  during  1918  were  twice  those  of  1917,  40  per  cent  of 
this  total  was  driven  by  truck.  In  1920,  60  per  cent  of 
driven-in  hog  receipts  were  truck  hauled.  The  St.  Joseph 
figures  clearly  indicate  that  the  truck  movement  com- 
menced about  1917  and  that  each  of  the  following  years 
have  witnessed  decided  increases. 

“At  Omaha  truck-hauled  receipts  appear  to  have  com- 
menced earlier  than  at  St.  Joseph;  for  during  the  years 
1917  and  1918  the  best  estimates  placed  the  truck-hauled 
recepts  about  90  per  cent  of  the  total  driven-in  receipts, 
while  the  year  1919  amounted  to  95  per  cent  of  the  total 
driven-in  receipts.  In  1920  virtually  all  driven-in  receipts 
were  truck-hauled. 

“At  Cincinnati  in  the  year  1918  more  than  90  per  cent 
of  driven-in  receipts  were  truck-hauled  while  in  1919  at 
least  95  per  cent  of  all  stock  delivered  at  this  yard  other 
than  by  freight  car  came  on  motor  trucks.  In  1920  driven- 
in  receipts  which  were  not  truck-hauled  were  negligible. 

“Indianapolis  has  shown  the  most  conspicuous  increase 
in  truck  delivered  stock  of  any  yard  in  the  country.  Dur- 
ing the  last  year  more  than  95  per  cent  of  all  driven-in 
hogs  to  this  yard  were  delivered  by  motor  truck.  It  is 
seldom  that  team  equipment  is  seen  at  this  yard.  At  both 
Cincinnati  and  Indianapolis  on  an  average  day  100  trucks 
can  be  seen  coming  into  the  yards,  while  as  many  as  300 
trucks  have  been  counted  at  Cincinnati  in  one  day,  and 
as  many  as  450  at  Indianapolis.  ’ ’ 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  287 


From  tables  given  in  the  Bulletin  are  extracted  the  fol- 
lowing data  for  the  Omaha  and  the  Indianapolis  yards : 


Omaha  Yard 


Year 

Driven-in  Receipts 

Total  Receipts 

Percentage,  Driven- 
in  to  Total 

1916 

46,542 

3,116,820 

1.47 

1917 

65,922 

2,796,596 

2.36 

1918 

188,417 

3,429,533 

5.38 

1919 

179,036 

3,179,116 

5.64 

1920 

1921 

181,946 

2,708,482 

6.67 

Indianapolis  Yard 


Year 

Driven-in  Receipts 

Total  Receipts 

Percentage,  Driven- 
in  to  Total 

1912 

110,624 

1,824,260 

6.06 

1913 

90,821 

1,994,624 

4.04 

1914 

96,521 

2,099,787 

4.58 

1915 

136,441 

2,435,319 

5.61 

1916 

173,191 

2,576,611 

6.74 

1917 

271,994 

2,350,730 

7.84 

1918 

462,313 

2,749,976 

16.8 

1919 

709,584 

2,936,493 

23.7 

1920 

1921 

787,100 

2,896,894 

27.2 

A graphical  representation  shows  the  continuous  increase 
of  driven-in  to  the  total  receipts.  The  table  of  percentages 
and  the  graphical  representation  are  not  given  in  the 
bulletin.  They  show  very  clearly  what  happened  when  the 
motor  truck  began  to  function  in  1917.  The  truck  has 
made  a very  much  more  effective  showing  at  Indianapolis 
than  at  Omaha.  No  doubt  this  is  because  (1)  the  average 
haul  at  Omaha  is  longer ; Omaha  draws  from  a more 
sparsely  settled  country  and  from  longer  distances;  (2) 
the  roads  adjacent  to  Omaha  are  nearly  all,  as  yet,  earth- 
surfaced.  Only  a few  hard  roads  have  been  built;  (3) 
many  of  the  farms  in  the  Omaha  territory  are  large  and 


288  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

sell  so  many  animals  at  a time  that  they  can  easily  fill  one, 
two,  or  three  railway  cars  at  a shipment.  The  percentage  of 
truck-hauled  stock  will  no  doubt  continue  to  increase  until 
practically  all  hogs  within  the  economic  radius  of  truck 
operation  are  marketed  by  motor.  When  the  time  comes, 
if  it  ever  will,  when  abattoirs  are  established  at  distances 
no  farther  apart  than  100  to  150  miles,  making  the 
maximum  haul  50  to  75  miles,  the  percentage  of  stock 
handled  by  the  railroads  to  these  abattoirs  will  be  very 


DRIVEN- IN  HOGS  A5  A PERCENTAGE  OF  TOTAL  RECEIPTS 

INDIANAPOLIS  OMAHA 

Showing  the  increase  of  truck-delivered  hogs  at  Indianapolis  and 

at  Omaha. 

small  indeed.  The  larger  packing  houses  with  the  advan- 
tages of  great  quantity  production  will  still  be  able  to 
reach  out  into  the  more  remote  districts  and  secure  that 
proportion  of  animals  necessary  to  keep  them  going  which 
can  not  be  obtained  locally. 

That  there  is  still  an  opportunity  for  increases  of  motor- 
hauled  stock  a further  quotation  from  the  Firestone  Bul- 
letin will  show : 

“The  territory  served  by  trucks  in  marketing  live  stock 
is  principally  within  a 50-mile  radius  of  the  market  center. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  289 


In  the  course  of  investigation  the  longest  haul  which  came 
under  observation  was  140  miles.  The  average  haul  on 
the  days  the  investigators  were  at  the  markets  was  about 
30  miles.  The  following  table  gives  some  idea  of  the  length 
of  hauls  at  the  four  different  yards : 


Yard 

No.  of 
Trucks 
Observed 

Longest 

Haul, 

Miles 

Shortest 

Haul, 

Miles 

Average 

Haul, 

Miles 

St.  Joseph 

48 

100 

9 

27 

Omaha 

62 

75 

6 

28.2 

Cincinnati 

40 

72 

3.5 

28.9 

Indianapolis 

40 

97 

7 

32.5 

“While  the  average  haul  is  28.95  miles,  most  of  the 
trucks  observed  in  the  course  of  investigation  use  solid-tire 
equipment.  This  type  of  equipment  had  a tendency  to  re- 
strict the  mileage.  ’ ’ 

The  bulletin  also  is  authority  for  a statement  that  91.3 
per  cent  of  the  hogs  within  a 50-mile  circle  about  the 
Indianapolis  yards  are  carried  by  trucks,  but  that  only  18.3 
per  cent  at  Omaha  move  that  way,  and  at  St.  Joseph  10.8 
per  cent,  which  indicates  to  them  that  there  are  still  great 
possibilities  for  the  truck,  especially  as  the  truck  has  not 
come  into  as  extended  use  at  many  other  packing  centers 
as  at  the  four  places  treated  in  the  bulletin. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  pneumatic-tire  equipment, 
and  to  a lesser  extent,  the  cushion-tire  equipment  will  ex- 
tend the  average  haul  to  50  miles.  Hard-surfaced  roads 
will  again  extend  it  25  to  50  miles,  making  a haul  of  75  to 
100  miles  not  uncommon. 

A further  effect  of  the  truck  and  the  ease  of  marketing 
which  it  will  bring  about  is  that  hogs  will  be  marketed  in 
smaller  quantities  but  oftener.  The  farmer  instead  of 
turning  off  his  marketable  animals  twice  a year  will  send 
them  in  four  times  a year,  possibly  monthly.  The  tendency 
will  be  to  stabilize  the  market  over  the  several  seasons.  As 


290  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 


yet,  the  stabilizing,  influence  of  the  truck  is  hardly  notice- 
able. 

Diagrams  on  pages  290  and  291  show  the  average  monthly 
number  of  hogs  received  at  the  yards  of  Indianapolis  and 
Omaha  by  truck ; the  years  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  be- 


80000 

JAN. 


Ainr 


Average  number  of  driven-in  hogs  marketed  at  Indianapolis  each 
month;  years  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  being  averaged. 

ing  averaged.  At  Indianapolis,  where  the  roads  are  good 
the  year  around,  the  receipts  from  June  to  December  are 
much  larger  than  those  from  December  to  June,  the  peaks 
occurring  in  December  and  June.  In  Omaha,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  greater  number  of  driven-in  hogs  came  in  the 
other  half  of  the  year  the  peaks  occurring  in  January  and 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  291 

July.  These  may  be  partially  accounted  for,  in  the  West, 
on  the  theory  that  January  1st  and  March  1st  are  regular 
settlement  days  and  farmers  arrange  to  meet  their  obliga- 
tions then  by  selling  off  a batch  of  hogs.  They  also  plan 
to  reduce  the  number  of  their  hogs  to  the  minimum  during 


18000 

JAN. 


Aior 


Average  number  of  driven-in  hogs  marketed  at  Omaha  each  month; 
years  1917,  1918,  1919,  and  1920  being  averaged. 

the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July,  so  as  to  have  few  fat 
hogs  to  carry  through  the  hot  weather.  In  the  Eastern 
states  the  farmers  seem  to  work  on  a different  basis.  If 
the  selling  of  live  stock  could  be  spread  out  uniformly 
over  the  year  prices  would  be  more  uniform.  An  analysis 
of  prices  on  the  Chicago  hog  market  shows  that  they  are 


292  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

usually  highest  during  the  summer  months,  from  April 
to  August,  the  months  when  the  fewest  numbers  are  sold. 
The  advantage  which  those  crops  which  can  be  stored  with- 
out deterioration,  such  as  grain,  cotton,  wool,  and  lumber, 
is  manifest.  The  price  of  meat  is  less  fluctuating  than  that 
of  live  stock  because  meat  can  be  kept  indefinitely  in  the 
cold  storage  houses  at  a very  small  expense.  It  is  quite 
likely  that  more  good  roads  and  a more  extensive  use  of 
the  truck  will  tend  to  a better  distribution  of  live  stock 
marketed  throughout  the  several  seasons  of  the  year. 

One  of  the  principal  advantages  of  marketing  by  truck 
is  the  less  liability  of  losses  in  transit.  Dealers  and  owners 
often  crowd  too  many  hogs  into  a freight  car  and  as  a result 
some  smother.  Or,  if  hogs  from  different  farms  are  placed 
together  in  a ear  there  may  be  fighting,  which  unduly  heats 
up  the  hogs  with  equally  dire  results.  It  is  reported  that 
at  the  Chicago  yards  in  1918  there  were  removed  from 
cars  24,785  dead  hogs  and  in  1919,  28,356.  To  be  sure 
many  of  these  cars  came  from  a distance  and  were,  perhaps, 
several  days  on  the  way.  But  a fat  hog  is  a delicate  animal 
and  a stream  of  cold  water  from  a hose  on  a hot  hog  will 
often  kill  him  instantly.  Government  figures  state  that 
one  out  of  every  319  hogs  shipped  died  in  transit ; of  cattle 
one  out  of  every  998 ; of  sheep  one  out  of  every  936.  Losses 
by  motor,  because  the  animals  are  not  crowded  so  many 
together,  because  they  are  acquainted  and  do  not  fight,  be- 
cause the  distances  traveled  are  usually  such  that  only 
three  or  four  hours  elapse  between  the  times  of  loading  and 
unloading,  and  because  the  driver  is  always  at  hand  to 
quell  disturbances  and  to  see  that  there  is  no  undue  crowd- 
ing, are  said  to  be  negligible. 

The  local  buyer  at  points  near  packing  houses  has  al- 
most become  extinct.  These  men  formerly  bought  from  the 
farmers  and  held  the  stock  until  they  had  sufficient  number 
to  fill  a car.  Since  they  would  often  have  to  hold  them 
several  days  they  had  to  buy  on  a wide  margin  to  insure 
themselves  against  loss,  from  % to  IV2  cents  a pound. 
Even  where  the  farmer  does  not  own  a truck  he  can  get  the 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  293 

hogs  hauled  at  a cost  of  % to  % cents  a pound,  or  a saving 
of  about  $15  per  truck  load.  If  a return  load  is  to  be  had, 
such  as  lumber  or  feeders  the  saving  will  be  greater.  One 
difficulty  about  the  return  load  is  the  necessity  of 
thoroughly  cleaning  the  truck  body.  A shovel,  a hose  with 
a fair  pressure  of  water,  and  a hard  floor  upon  which  to 
stand  the  truck  while  it  is  being  cleaned  are  necessary. 

Incidentally  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  local  stock- 
yards  in  the  way  they  are  often  kept  are  very  unsanitary 
and  certainly  a nuisance  as  far  as  bad  smells  are  concerned 
as  well  as  a menace  to  health. 

Shrinkage. — The  argument  that  there  is  less  shrinkage 
in  motor-hauled  hogs  than  in  rail-hauled  may  be  as  a gen- 
eral rule  true,  but,  according  to  the  Firestone  Bulletin,  will 
not  net  the  farmer  much,  because  buyers  base  the  price 
they  are  willing  to  pay  on  the  dressed  weight  and  not  the 
live  weight.  It  is  stated  that  the  buyer  from  long  experi- 
ence is  able  to  estimate  with  considerable  accuracy  the 
weight  at  which  a hog  will  dress,  and  that  he  makes  his 
price  offer  accordingly.  The  percentage  loss  of  weight  in 
dressing  is,  of  course,  greater  for  thin  than  for  fat  hogs. 
By  grading  the  hogs  into  classes  the  buyer  is  enabled  to 
discount  the  price  paid  enough  to  take  care  of  the  “fill,” 
which  is  said  to  range  from  3 to  5 pounds  per  hundred 
weight.  But  notwithstanding  this  the  fact  that  the  animals 
are  fresher  and  livelier  must  have  some  effect  on  the  mind 
of  the  buyer.  This  may  be  the  reason  for  the  rapid  increase 
of  hogs  received  by  truck  at  the  packing  houses,  being  as 
many  as  6800  in  a single  day  at  Indianapolis. 

Dairying. — The  use  to  which  the  motor  truck  has  been 
put  in  other  industries  is  fully  as  important.  Many  in- 
dustries use  several  hundred  trucks  in  their  work. 
Creameries  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  very  fact 
that  trucks  make  regular  trips  along  designated  routes  is 
an  invitation  to  the  farmers  to  do  more  dairying.  If  John 
Jones  can  draw  from  $50  to  $75  a month  from  the  creamery 
for  a few  hours  ’ work  each  day,  Henry  Smith  living  on  the 
next  farm  is  anxious  to  do  likewise.  Many  good  farmers 


294  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

find  it  to  their  advantage  in  the  long  run  to  allow  the 
women  folks  to  have  all  the  poultry  and  creamery  money 
while  the  men  content  themselves  with  the  returns  from 
grain,  livestock,  woodlot,  and  hay  land.  Thus  is  created 
a division  of  labor  which  if  carried  out  to  the  limit  will 
interest  every  member  of  the  rural  family  in  some  par- 
ticular part  of  the  farm  work. 

Without  going  into  detail  it  may  be  said  that  from  rais- 
ing beef  on  the  natural  grass  of  the  plains  region  to  the 
raising  of  stock  for  butter,  milk  and  cheese  may  seem  a far 
cry,  but  with  adequate  markets  and  dependable  transpor- 
tation this  is  rapidly  coming  to  pass.  Dairying  has  already 
reached  enormous  proportions,  and  since  it  is  estimated  that 
dairy  products  should  constitute  for  the  sake  of  health  and 
economy  about  one-fifth  the  average  diet,  it  can  easily  be 
seen  that  dairying  always  will  be  of  great  importance. 
Over  $18,000,000  a year  is  now  received  for  milk  and  cream 
by  Nebraska  farmers,  and  Nebraska  is  not  a leader  in  this 
line.  No  doubt  with  better  roads  and  better  marketing 
facilities  that  will  be  doubled  or  trebled  in  a few  years. 

Poultry. — We  have  just  mentioned  the  Nebraska  in- 
come from  milk  and  cream  sold  by  the  farmers.  It  may  be 
surprising  that  the  sum  received  from  the  humble  hen  is 
nearly  twice  as  much  (given  by  state  authorities  as  $35,- 
000,000  from  the  fowls  and  eggs  produced  each  year). 

But  the  only  way  this  can  be  successful  is  by  quick  and 
adequate  markets.  Dressed  fowls  and  eggs  are  highly  per- 
ishable products  and  must  be  put  into  the  cold  storage 
warehouses  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  The  motor 
car  and  the  rural  express,  with  their  necessary  accompani- 
ment good  roads,  make  this  possible  and  thus  increase  the 
returns  to  the  poultry  industry  as  well  as  widen  the 
territory  over  which  it  will  pay  to  keep  fowls  for  com- 
mercial purposes. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  efficacy  of  the  motor  truck  in 
the  poultry  business  this  quotation  from  the  New  York 
Times,  June  8,  1920,  is  given : 6 

• From  a reprint  by  the  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  295 


At  6 o’clock  one  morning  a motor  truck  was  loaded  at  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  with  18,000  eggs  in  crates,  and  1000  chicks  a day  old, 
and  started  for  New  York  City,  one  hundred  miles  away,  says 
the  writer.  At  the  same  time  a similar  shipment  was  sent  to 
the  consignee  by  railroad.  It  took  the  truck  twelve  hours  to 
reach  New  York.  Four  of  the  little  chicks  were  dead  and  nine 
eggs  were  broken  when  the  goods  were  delivered  at  the  door  of 
the  consignee. 

The  train  shipment  was  four  days  in  reaching  Jersey  City. 
It  took  another  day  to  send  a notice  to  the  consignee  that  the  ship- 
ment had  arrived.  He  was  then  compelled  to  send  his  own  truck 
to  Jersey  City  for  the  shipment.  When  it  reached  his  door 
thousands  of  the  eggs  had  been  smashed  and  half  the  chicks  were 
dead. 

Diversified  Farming. — Before  leaving  the  farm  it  might 
be  well  to  say  that  easy  marketing  makes  for  diversified 
farming.  All  eggs  are  not  put  in  one  basket,  and  in  case 
of  a failure  or  partial  failure  in  one  crop  the  effect  is  not 
felt  so  much  because  there  are  others  from  which  returns 
will  be  received.  Often  drought  will  injure  a wheat  crop 
but  later  rains  will  “make”  the  com  crop ; or,  earth  soaked 
by  winter  snows  will  mature  a wheat  crop  while  the  corn 
may,  due  to  a few  days  of  hot  dry  weather,  be  a partial 
failure.  While  chinch  bugs  may  get  the  wheat,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  kill  potato  bugs  by  spraying.  And  the  year  the 
potatoes  die  by  blight  may  be  excellent  for  alfalfa  and 
timothy.  Diversified  farming  also  allows  of  the  rotation 
of  crops,  thus  conserving  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  And  it 
all  can  be  done  over  a wide  range  from  the  market  place 
because  of  good  roads  and  easy  marketing  facilities. 

Forestry. — Realizing  that  the  lumbering  methods  in 
vogue  in  this  country  since  its  earliest  settlement  are  most 
wasteful  and  are  destructive  of  the  future  usefulness  of  the 
timbered  regions  the  United  States  Government  has  set 
aside  as  forest  reserves  several  hundred  thousand  square 
miles.  A forest  crop  is  like  any  other  crop.  It  must  grow 
from  the  seed  and  at  maturity  be  harvested.  Those  trees 
that  have  reached  the  point  in  life  where  years  do  not  add 
materially  to  the  lumber  content  are  marked  for  cutting. 
So  that  each  year  brings  a harvest.  New  trees  are  planted 


296  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

or  allowed  to  spring  up  where  the  old  were  cut  so  that  there 
is  a continuity.  It  is  estimated  that  there  yet  remains  some 
550,000,000  acres  of  forest  land  unsuited  for  agriculture. 

The  older  lumbering  methods  meant  that  a company 
gained  control  of  a tract  of  timber  land,  sometimes  they 
had  not  purchased  it,  it  was  really  government  owned,  and 
cut  and  slashed  all  the  trees  that  were  upon  it.  No  attempt 
was  made  to  utilize  any  of  the  tree  except  the  bole;  the 
limbs,  containing  thousands  of  cords  of  good  wood,  were 
left  with  the  slash  to  become  the  prey  later  of  fierce  fires, 
which  often  got  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  cutting  and  de- 
stroyed millions  of  acres  of  growing  timber.7  At  a still 
earlier  day  the  trees  were  cut  so  that  they  would  fall  with 
their  tops  together,  then  they  were  burned  in  order  to  clear 
the  land  for  farming  purposes.  The  only  reason  settlers  did 
not  go  to  the  great  prairie  lands  of  the  Middle  West  where 
such  wanton  destruction  was  unnecessary,  was  the  lack  of 
means  for  rapid  transportation,  and  communication. 

Even  the  loggers  and  lumbermen  were  often  isolated 
from  all  civilization  except  their  own  party  or  neighboring 
parties  of  like  kind,  with  no  roads  but  the  trails  of  their 
own  making.  The  highways  of  commerce  were  the  streams 
and  rivers  to  which  the  logs  were  rolled  or  snaked  by  oxen, 
mules,  or  horses,  and  down  which  they  were  floated  in  the 
spring  when  the  flow  was  sufficient  to  carry  them.  When 
they  reached  the  larger  rivers  they  were  often  bound  into 
rafts  and  floated  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  mills  for  sawing, 
a cheap  means  of  transportation. 

As  the  timber  was  cut  off  near  the  streams  it  was  neces- 
sary to  go  farther  back  for  logs.  Then  developed  the  log- 
ging railways.  Usually  narrow  gauge  lines  with  small 
locomotives  which  brought  logs  down  from  the  forests  to 
the  streams  or  to  other  lines  of  railway.  But  as  yet 
scientific  means  of  lumbering  had  not  been  adopted.  Not 
until  the  government  by  making  large  forest  reserves  and 
by  insisting  that  loggers  should  clean  up  and  burn  the 

' During  the  year  1919  there  were  reported  27,000  forest  fires  which 
burned  over  8,500,000  acres. — American  Forestry,  Dee.,  1920,  p.  707. 


A MILK  TRUCK 


© Underwood  and  Underwood 


A LUMBER  LOG  TRUCK 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  297 

slashes  in  such  a manner  as  not  to  injure  standing  timber, 
and  leave  the  ground  in  such  a condition  that  new  trees  of 
good  varieties  would  spring  up  to  take  the  places  of  those 
cut,  did  there  come  any  real  advancement  along  these  lines. 

In  order  that  the  better  methods  of  lumbering  and  forest 
management  could  he  successfully  carried  out  it  became 
necessary  to  supply  roads  of  such  a character  that  trans- 
portation would  not  be  unduly  burdensome.  If  the  trees  to 
be  cut  were  to  be  selected  hither  and  yon,  getting  the  logs 
and  wood  from  the  tops  would  be  a much  more  expensive 
process  than  the  mere  rolling  of  holes  to  the  stream  and 
leaving  the  slash  to  decay  or  burn.  The  Government, 
realizing  this,  is  now  expending  millions  of  dollars  on  the 
forest  roads  making  them  usable  not  only  by  teams  but  by 
trucks  and  automobiles. 

The  truck  and  trailer  have  rapidly  made  their  way  in  the 
logging  and  lumbering  industries.  By  the  use  of  the 
trailer  and  the  Government-made  good  roads  the  truck  is 
able  to  haul  logs  of  almost  any  length  down  from  the  log- 
ging grounds.  Trucks  and  tractors  are  utilized  in  the 
forests,  too,  for  snaking  logs  and  pulling  stumps.  In 
places  where  the  grades  are  steep  or  on  the  interior  where 
the  roads  have  not  yet  penetrated  causeways  have  been 
built  of  timber;  these  usually  being  cross-ties,  and  under 
trussing  across  draws,  with  lengthwise  planks  for  the 
wheels  to  run  on  and  side  planks  or  logs  to  keep  the  ma- 
chine on  the  track.  Down  this  causeway  by  means  of  a 
two-wheeled  semi-trailer,  immense  logs  are  transported. 
As  they  are  sometimes  very  steep,  chains  on  the  wheels 
are  necessary  to  prevent  slipping  and  assist  in  braking. 

The  average  load  that  a logging  truck  and  trailer  will 
haul  is  from  3000  to  5000  feet.  Larger  loads  are  hauled 
over  snow  on  sleds,  but  when  distance  and  time  are  con- 
sidered the  truck  is  claimed  to  be  more  efficient.  F.  "W. 
Fenn  states  that  a lumber  camp  truck  to  be  efficient  “must 
have  maximum  traction,  ample  clearance,  and  proper  ser- 
vice and  care  and  be  stout  enough  and  strong  enough  to 


298  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

stand  the  severest  strains.”8  He  further  claims  that  the 
truck  is  replacing  the  older  means  of  transportation,  drag- 
ging by  horses  and  oxen,  skidding  down  mountain  sides, 
rafting  upon  rivers,  not  because  it  is  cheaper  but  because 
the  great  stands  of  timber  are  gradually  decreasing  and 
the  modern  method  of  cutting  only  properly  developed 
trees  is  coming  into  vogue.  “Thus  the  logging  industry  has 
developed  from  one  of  independence  to  almost  total  de- 
pendence upon  improved  transportation  facilities,  with  its 
consequent  problems  and  expense.” 

The  hauling  of  logs  down  to  the  water  edge  by  trucks 
upon  natural  earth  roads  and  upon  specially  prepared  skid- 
ways  is  said  to  be  cheaper  than  the  narrow-gauge  railways 
formerly  in  use  in  the  state  of  Washington. 

One  of  the  types  of  trailers  worked  out  has  four  wheels, 
44  inches  in  diameter  for  the  front  and  46  for  the  rear  with 
a 10-inch  tread  all  around.  The  trailer  is  fastened  to  the 
truck  by  a long  pipe  coupling.  The  most  satisfactory 
trailer,  according  to  Fenn,  is  the  two-wheeled  rubber -tired 
with  wheels  40  to  44  inches  in  diameter.  Roads  which 
theoretically  require  steel  tires  for  ironing  out  ruts 
would  better  be  planked  or  otherwise  hard  surfaced. 

Proper  attention  and  routing  will  greatly  prolong  the 
life  of  the  truck.  A longer  smoother  road  is  rather  to  be 
preferred  to  a short  rough  one.  The  depreciation  of  the 
truck  is  figured  on  a basis  of  100,000  miles  as  its  minimum 
life. 

Other  Uses  of  the  Truck. — But  the  use  of  the  truck  in 
the  lumbering  industries  is  not  limited  to  logging.  About 
the  saw  mills  it  is  used  for  getting  the  logs  to  the  saw  and 
taking  the  sawed  lumber  away.  And  at  yards,  all  over 
the  country,  for  taking  the  lumber  from  the  railroad  tracks 
to  the  storage  piles  and  for  delivering  it  to  customers. 
Special  loading  devices  save  much  time.  A gantry  or  other 

* ‘ ‘ The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  in  the  Extraction  of  Baw  Products 
at  the  Source,”  by  F.  W.  Fenn,  National  Automobile  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  New  York. 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  299 

type  of  crane  will  pick  up  and  handle  an  entire  load  of 
lumber  at  one  time. 

Amos  Log  Loader. — The  Amos  log  loader  is  described  as 
an  efficient  loading  machine  in  which  a friction  drive  takes 
power  directly  from  the  drive  shaft  of  the  motor  truck  and 
by  means  of  a worm  gear  transmits  it  to  a long  winding 
shaft,  or  small  diameter  drum,  which  extends  the  length  of 
the  truck  bed,  being  mounted  parallel  to  it  just  under  the 
bed.  Loading  chains  are  attached  to  this  drum  either  at 
the  ends  or  middle  as  the  driver  wishes.  The  movement  is 
regulated  by  means  of  a lever  just  over  the  truck  step.  By 
a small  movement  of  his  foot  the  driver  has  control  of  the 
friction  drive  while  his  hands  are  free  to  operate  the  engine. 
He  can  raise  or  lower  the  log  or  stop  it  at  any  point. 
Stopping  it  if  desired  so  he  can  leave  his  position  to  make 
needed  adjustments  of  the  log,  chains,  or  skids.  The  small 
diameter  of  the  winding  drum  insures  steady  strong  pull. 
It  may  also  be  used  for  skidding  logs  into  position  for  load- 
ing. It  is  claimed  the  truck  driver  soon  becomes  very  ex- 
pert as  he  realizes  the  possibilities  of  the  loading  device. 
After  the  logs  are  loaded  the  loading  chains  are  used  to 
bind  them  to  the  truck. 

In  the  Yards. — After  the  logs  are  sawed  the  lumber  is 
stacked  up  in  yards  either  at  the  point  of  sawing  or  else- 
where. It  must  be  hauled  to  the  shipment  point  and  from 
the  cars  to  the  yards.  Trucks  are  applicable  for  all  these 
purposes.  When  it  comes  to  delivering  the  lumber  to  the 
consumer  a wagon  known  as  a dolly  is  of  great  assistance 
for  collecting  materials  to  load  on  the  delivery  truck.  Most 
retail  yards  now  deliver  their  lumber  by  truck  even  to  a 
distance  of  15  or  20  miles.  When  an  order  for  mixed 
grades,  sizes,  or  kinds  of  materials  is  received,  a light  wagon 
or  cart  having  a dolly  upside  down  for  its  floor,  the  whole 
known  as  a “dolly,”  is  used  in  the  loading.  The  dolly  has 
a roller  placed  cross-ways  of  the  wagon  bed  and  the  lumber 
is  piled  directly  upon  it,  care  being  taken  that  some  long 
pieces  are  used  for  the  bottom  of  the  load.  The  dolly  is 
pushed  by  hand  from  place  to  place  in  the  yard  until  the 


300  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

order  has  been  filled  with  the  various  pieces  desired.  The 
truck,  which  may  be  out  during  the  time  the  selection  is 
being  made,  is  backed  up  to  the  end  of  the  dolly,  the  floor 
of  the  truck  body  passing  under  the  lower  boards ; then  by 
turning  the  cross  roller  with  a crank  the  whole  load  is  con- 
veyed to  the  truck.  To  facilitate  the  action  another  roller 
is  placed  in  the  floor  of  the  truck  near  its  rear  end.  Both 
rollers  may  be  turned  at  the  same  time.  The  dolly  may 
have  two  or  four  wheels. 

A short  truck  is  often  arranged  for  a semi-trailer  which 
may  be  loaded  in  a manner  similar  to  the  dolly.  'With  two 
or  three  of  these  trailers  a busy  yard  will  keep  the  truck 
and  driver  on  the  road  practically  all  the  time  at  a con- 
siderable saving  in  expense  over  waiting  time  if  the  lumber 
is  loaded  directly  upon  the  truck. 

Mining. — The  building  of  railway  tracks  to  mines  was 
at  one  time  a very  expensive  part  of  a railroad’s  business. 
It  required  much  expert  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  rail- 
road officials  to  determine  whether  or  not  such  a road  would 
pay.  In  fact  a great  many  miles  of  such  tracks  have  been 
abandoned  and  very  likely  the  loss  to  the  railroad  has  been 
equal  to  that  of  the  mining  companies.  Motor  trucking  is 
to  a large  extent  doing  away  with  the  enormous  track  build- 
ing that  formerly  went  on  in  the  mining  communities. 
This  eliminates  the  switching  charge  which  seldom  paid  the 
railroad,  and  possibly  the  trucking  is  more  convenient  and 
cheaper  to  the  mining  company.  Here  again  the  use  of 
trailers,  special  bodies,  and  mechanical  loading  and  unload- 
ing devices  will  greatly  expedite  the  work.  When  the 
mine  has  grown  so  that  the  quantity  of  ore  or  coal  taken 
out  will  pay  for  it  a railroad  track  may  be  laid  without 
risk  of  loss  to  either  railroad  or  mine. 

The  hauling  of  mine  products  a long  distance  is  not 
altogether  uncommon.  Transporting  borax  from  Death 
Valley,  California,  was  formerly  done  by  twenty-mule 
teams.  It  is  now  much  more  expeditiously  and  cheaply 
hauled  by  motor  trucks.  And  the  transport  of  supplies 
from  point  of  purchase  to  interior  and  isolated  mines,  or  to 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  301 

depots  from  which  they  may  be  continued  by  pack  horses  is 
common  practice. 

Factory  Products. — Scarcely  a manufacturing  industry 
but  that  owns  motor  trucks,  some  of  them  running  into  the 
hundreds.  No  doubt  these  trucks  have  had  their  effect  on 
the  goods  manufactured  just  as  any  other  machine  intro- 
duced into  the  process  might  do.  In  some  instances  goods 
that  were  marketed  through  jobbers  are  being  sold  directly 
to  the  retailer  and  sent  to  them  by  routings  which  return 
to  the  same  customer  every  day,  every  two  days,  twice  or 
once  a week,  or  once  a month,  or  in  such  regular  periods 
the  customer  may  look  forward  and  depend  upon  the  com- 
ing. Packing  houses  by  delivering  meat  with  truck  directly 
to  the  retailer ’s  butcher  block  daily  have  practically  driven 
out  of  business  the  old  slaughter  houses  with  their  un- 
pleasant odors  and  unsanitary  conditions. 

Special  bodies  have  been  devised  for  the  different  manu- 
factured products.  A slatted  rack  accommodates  nearly 
300  empty  barrels ; tanks  are  made  to  haul  milk,  gasoline, 
or  other  liquids;  cracker  factories  have  racks  which  will 
accommodate  cardboard  cartons  without  injury  by  crush- 
ing; low  long-bodied  trucks  upon  which  cotton  bales  may  be 
placed  without  much  lifting  lessens  the  time  and  labor  of 
loading;  different-sized  drawers  on  the  inside  of  a body 
have  been  used  to  take  clothing-store  goods  to  customers  in 
outlying  districts ; plumbers  fit  up  shops  on  wheels,  claim- 
ing thereby  to  save  time  and  expense  to  their  patrons  by 
not  having  to  go  back  to  the  shop  numerous  times  in  the 
course  of  a job  to  get  tools  and  supplies;  furniture  and 
automobile  trucks  have  large  roomy  bodies  to  carry  bulky 
but  not  very  heavy  goods.  Hoists,  cranes,  tipping  bodies, 
combination  bodies,  conveying  belts  and  chains  and  many 
other  devices  facilitate  rapid  unloading  and  loading. 

By  sending  goods  from  factory  to  retailer  by  motor  rail- 
way terminal  expense  is  cut  out.  Just  how  far  it  is  profit- 
able to  send  goods  by  truck  is  a question  depending  on  the 
relative  terminal  charges,  the  hauling  rate,  and  the  col- 
lecting charges.  The  collecting  charges  at  a factory  might 


302  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 

or  might  not  be  the  same  for  shipments  by  rail  and  by 
truck.  If  the  railroad  switch  is  such  that  there  is  no  haul- 
ing from  factory  to  car  except  that  on  the  floor  of  the  fac- 
tory itself,  there  would  be  no  difference,  otherwise  there 
would  be  the  expense  of  hauling  to  the  loading  tracks. 
If  the  expense  of  selling  is  not  affected  by  motor  hauling 
the  only  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  actual  cost  of  trans- 
portation. If  this  be  taken  to  be  made  up  of  two  items, 
namely,  terminal  costs,  and  hauling  costs,  the  distributing 
charge  by  railway  may  be  written : 

D=T+Rx 

where  T is  the  railroad  terminal  cost ; 

R,  the  railroad  rate  per  mile  cost  per  unit-package, 
barrel,  cwt.  or  ton ; 
x,  the  number  of  miles  hauled. 

The  distributing  charge  by  truck  would  be  a similar 
equation 

d=t-\-rx 

where  the  letters  represent  the  same  items  referred  to  the 
truck.  If  D is  made  equal  to  d,  there  results, 

t-\-rx=T-\-Rx 

and,  rx—Rx—T—t 

T-t 
x — — D 
r — R 

Railroads  do  not  separate  the  terminal  and  hauling 
charge  for  the  good  and  sufficient  reason  that  if  this  be 
done  there  are  a number  of  other  factors  of  transpor- 
tation that  could  with  equal  reason  be  segregated.  The 
terminal  costs,  and  by  that  is  considered  all  the  expense 
except  the  actual  cost  of  haulage,  has  been  variously  com- 
puted. 6.  M.  Jones,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  United  States  Department  of  Commerce,  esti- 
mates “that  the  average  expense  of  hauling  a ton  of  freight 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  303 


240  miles  is  74  cents  while  the  cost  of  handling  the  same 
freight  at  the  terminals  is  75  cents.”9 

A more  definite  and  possibly  more  accurate  statement  is 
that  of  the  Inter-State  Commerce  Commission,  also  quoted 
«•  by  Lane,  p.  53  : 

The  combined  average  terminal  cost  at  one  end  is  shown  to  be 
10.4  cents  per  hundred  pounds.  For  two  terminal  buildings 
(origin  and  destination)  this  figure  doubled  results  in  20.8  cents 
per  hundred  pounds;  and  as  this  figure  contains  no  elements  of 
overhead  costs,  or  taxes,  such  costs  are  arrived  at  by  dividing 
the  terminal  cost  by  the  operating  ratio. 

The  operating  ratio  of  the  Trunk  Line  roads  for  1915,  1916 
and  1917  is  69.6,  and  the  result  of  dividing  the  terminal  cost  of 
20.8  cents  by  the  operating  ratio  is  30  cents  per  hundred  pounds, 
which  covers  terminal  expenses  and  overhead  for  less  than  car- 
load freight. 

An  example  may  be  worked  out  with  the  assumption  that 
the  railway  terminal  charge  is  30  cents  per  hundredweight, 
the  truck  terminal  charge  is  10  cents,  the  railway  haulage 
charge  is  0.02  cent  per  hundredweight  mile  and  the  truck 
haulage  charge  0.3  cent  per  hundredweight  mile.  Then  the 
economical  length  of  the  haul  must  not  be  less  than 


30-10 
.3-. 02 


20  2000  500  .. 

728  = ~28~=  ~ 71  miIeSi 


The  length  of  haul  varies  directly  as  the  difference  in  ter- 
minal charges  and  indirectly  as  the  difference  in  rates. 

The  example  given  should  not  be  applied  generally,  but 
each  case  must  be  considered  by  itself.  If  there  are  col- 
lecting and  marketing  costs,  they  may  be  added  to  the  ter- 
minal costs  and  the  sum  treated  as  a terminal  charge. 

Construction. — It  will  hardly  be  necessary  here  to  take 
up  more  individual  cases.  The  almost  universal  use  of 
trucks  in  the  handling  of  materials  of  construction  no  doubt 
has  affected  the  quantity  and  cost  of  construction,  truly  a 
productive  process.  Everyone  is  familiar  with  one  or 

9 Quoted  by  Lane  in  “Motor  Truck  Transportation,”  p.  6.  Van 
Nostrand  Co.,  New  York. 


304  Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation 


more  of  the  many  devices  for  loading  and  unloading,  for  in 
this  class  of  haulage  these  things  have  reached  a very  high 
state  of  development. 

Other  Agencies. — It  is  not  the  intention  here  to  claim 
for  the  motor  car  entire  credit  for  the  manifold  changes  in 
marketing — buying  and  selling — which  have  occurred  dur- 
ing the  past  two  decades.  Many  other  factors  have  entered 
into  these  changes  and  the  corresponding  advancement  in 
the  average  standard  of  living.  Transportation  of  all 
kinds,  upon  the  highways,  upon  the  railways,  upon  the 
waters,  by  telegraph,  by  telephone,  by  improvements  in  the 
postal  service,  and  by  the  general  increase  in  knowledge 
through  the  schools  and  printed  literature,  have  all  been 
instrumental  in  the  development.  But  the  automobile 
directly  and  indirectly  has  stimulated  each  of  these  activi- 
ties and  hence  deserves  credit  with  the  rest. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Inquiry,  Report  of  Joint  Commission  on  Part  IV 
deals  with  Marketing,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1922. 

American  Forestry,  “Forest  Fires,”  Dec.,  1920,  p.  707. 

Bohm-Bawerk,  “Positive  Theory  of  Capital,”  Translated  by  W. 
Smart,  Books  I— II.  Macmillan  & Co.,  London,  1891. 

Boyle,  James  E.,  “Speculation  and  the  Chicago  Board  of 
Trade,”  Macmillan  Company,  New  York;  “The  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade,  What  it  is  and  What  it  Does,”  Distributed 
by  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade. 

Collins,  J.  H.,  “Motor  Transportation  for  Rural  Districts,” 
Bulletin  770  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

Cowan,  D.  R.  and  Hart,  F.  C.,  “Motor  Transportation  in  Rural 
Ontario,”  Bulletin  227,  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1920. 

Dana,  Richard  T.,  “Hand  Book  of  Construction  Equipment,” 

pp.  550-559,  767-772. 

Fii’estone  Ship  by  Truck  Bureau,  Akron: 

Bulletin  No.  1,  “Ship  by  Truck  among  Farmers  through 
Cooperative  Associations”;  Bulletin  No.  2,  “How  and  Where 
to  Establish  Truck  Routes”;  Bulletin  No.  3,  “The  Motor 
Truck  at  the  Coal  Mines”;  Bulletin  No.  4,  “The  Farmer 


Effect  of  Ease  and  Cost  of  Transportation  305 


and  the  Motor  Truck”;  Bulletin  No.  5,  “Costs  and  Their 
Relation  to  Truck  Transportation.” 

Highway  and  Highway  Transport  Education  Committee.— 
“Proceedings  of  a Conference  on  the  Economics  of  High- 
way Transport,  Held  at  the  University  of  Maryland,  July 
27,  1921,”  Washington,  D.  C. 

Kentucky,  University  of,  College  of  Agriculture  Circular  No. 
130,  “Marketing  Farm  Products.”  Lexington,  Ky.,  June, 
1922. 

Lane,  F.  Van  Zant,  “Motor  Truck  Transportation,”  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company,  New  York. 

National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York: 

“Facts  and  Figures  of  the  Automobile  Industry,  1921.” 
“Factors  in  Food  Transportation.” 

“A  State  Endorses  the  Motor  Express.” 

By  Arthur  Capper,  “The  Midwest  Farm  Market  for  Motor 
Trucks  ^ 

By  F.  W.  Fenn : “The  Field  of  the  Motor  Truck  in  the 

Petroleum  Industry”;  “The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  in 
Extracting  Raw  Materials”;  “Motor  Truck  Operation 
at  the  Mines”;  “Motorizing  the  Factory”  “Organiza- 
tion and  Operation  of  a Rural  Motor  Express  Line.” 
By  R.  0.  Patten,  “Merchandising  Motor  Trucks.” 

By  R.  0.  Patten  and  F.  C.  Horner,  “The  Evils  of  Over- 
loading.” 

Norton,  S.  V.,  “The  Motor  Truck  as  an  Aid  to  Business 
Profits,”  pp.  155-156,  406-410,  484;  A.  W.  Shaw  Co., 
Chicago. 

Power  Wagon  Reference  Book. 

Tolley,  H.  R.  and  Church,  L.  M.,  Bulletin  910,  “Experiences 
of  Eastern  Farmers  with  Motor  Trucks”;  Bulletin  931, 
“Corn  Belt  Farmers’  Experience  with  Motor  Trucks”;  and 
Bulletin  1201,  “Motor  Trucks  on  Eastern  Farms,”  The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 

Vincent,  C.,  “Letters  on  Grain  Marketing  Problems,”  Privately 
published,  Omaha,  1921. 


CHAPTER  X 


FINANCING  HIGHWAYS  AND  HIGHWAY 
TRANSPORTATION  LINES 

Highway  financing  may  be  divided  for  consideration 
into  two  parts,  namely:  financing  the  road  and  financing 
the  operation  of  the  road.  Both  are  necessary  if  goods  are 
to  be  transported  from  where  they  are  plentiful,  grown, 
manufactured,  or  stored,  to  where  they  are  needed  for  sale, 
consumption  or  transshipment.  Money  is  required  for  both 
parts  and  it  must  be  obtained  in  some  legal  manner. 

As  has  been  shown  roads  developed  from  mere  trails 
that  originally  were  paths  along  which  by  common  consent, 
force,  or  otherwise  the  privilege  of  passing  was  gained. 
This,  when  ownership  in  land  was  recognized,  became  an 
easement.  After  the  development  of  civil  governments 
the  right  to  traverse  and  transport  goods  over  such  road- 
ways, that  is,  the  easement,  was  vouchsafed  to  the  inhabi- 
tants and  protected  by  laws.  In  England  the  right  of  way 
over  another’s  land  became  known  as  the  king’s  highway, 
as  all  public  property  was  held  and  measures  taken  in  the 
name  of  the  king.  In  the  United  States  it  is  known  simply 
as  a public  highway.  The  highway  is  in  reality  the  right 
of  passage,  not  the  beaten  track,  for  in  both  England  and 
the  United  States  the  laws  recognize  the  privilege  the 
traveler  has  when  for  any  reason  the  road  becomes  blocked 
or  obstructed  of  taking  to  the  fields  and  making  another 
track.  Equity  courts  may  grant  damages  for  such  usage 
of  private  land  by  the  public  but  no  court  will  attempt  to 
prevent  it;  if  necessary  they  will,  however,  by  writ  of 
mandamus  command  road  officers  to  repair  the  established 
roads  so  as  to  make  them  passable.  In  England  the  law 

306 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  307 

allowed  the  traveler  to  tarn  into  the  adjacent  field,  whether 
cultivated  or  not,  whenever  the  track  became  worn  or 
rutted.  In  order  to  keep  the  used  way  within  due  bounds 
and  at  the  same  time  maintain  it  in  a passable  condition 
the  freeholders,  perhaps  at  first  voluntarily  then  by  force 
of  laws,  worked  the  roads  once  or  twice  a year.  By  doing 
this  they  saved  their  lands  and  crops  from  being  trampled 
down.  It  has  also  been  shown  how  Edward  I took  up  the 
question  of  improving  the  highways  as  a police  measure  in 
order  that  it  might  be  safe  for  man  and  goods  to  pass  along 
the  road  without  being  attacked  from  ambush  by  robbers. 

Such  robberies  have  taken  place  in  the  development  of 
every  land,  and  those  who  have  made  a profession  of  it  are 
variously  styled  highwaymen,  bandits,  brigands,  and  so  on. 
Even  to  the  present  day,  as  has  been  shown  in  a preceding 
chapter,  highway  robbery  still  exists,  although  the  pro- 
fession of  highwayman  no  longer  commands  the  respect  of 
reputable  society  as  was  the  case  during  the  time  of  Robin 
Hood,  and  Claude  Duval  of  England,  and  of  the  Robber 
Barons  of  Germany. 

Thus  the  public  good  demanded  that  the  time  of  the  free- 
holders and  the  money  of  the  government  be  expended  upon 
the  highways.  Of  late  years  in  the  United  States  the 
“working  out”  of  road  or  poll  taxes  has  been  practically 
abolished  and  the  taxes  are  collected  in  money  which  is 
expended  in  road  construction  and  maintenance  by  persons 
regularly  delegated  for  that  purpose.  With  the  increased 
use  and  the  building  of  better  types  of  roadways  more  and 
more  money  is  demanded  so  that  the  financing  of  highway 
improvements  has  become  a matter  of  vast  importance. 
The  money  must  come  from  either  private  sources  or  from 
the  public.  If  from  the  public  it  results  directly  from 
taxation  or  is  borrowed  and  the  obligations  paid  off  by 
taxation. 

Private  Financing. — A few  persons  of  wealth  have  built 
roads  as  a benefaction  to  the  public.  Perhaps  one  of  the 
most  ambitious  projects  of  this  sort  is  the  DuPont  Road, 
which  is  located  through  the  state  of  Delaware  from  north 


308  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

to  south.  The  intention  of  the  DuPont  family  is  to  make 
this  road  eventually  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  It  has 
been  very  carefully  laid  out  and  constructed.  Later  it  is 
to  be  widened  and  beautified.  Some  $3,000,000  have  al- 
ready been  expended,  and  it  is  contemplated  to  spend 
$1,500,000  more.  It  might  be  well  if  more  men  of  wealth 
would  commemorate  their  names  by  constructing  and  en- 
dowing roads. 

In  spaces  about  wharfs  and  depots,  although  on  privately 
owned  ground  and  privately  constructed,  the  pavement  is 
often  used  generally  as  a highway.  Such  places  are  of 
course  primarily  for  the  convenience  of  the  steamship  or 
railway  companies  and  they  are  maintained  at  their  own 
expense.  However,  all  such  expense  forms  a part  of  the 
cost  of  operation  and  no  doubt  is  charged  to  the  patrons 
in  the  overhead,  or  it  is  intended  to  be  a means  of  advertis- 
ing in  the  hope  that  it  will  increase  business. 

In  timbered  and  rough  mountainous  countries,  roads 
have  frequently  been  built  and  maintained  by  the  com- 
panies interested  in  lumbering,  mining,  or  other  enterprises 
therein,  and  thrown  open  to  the  general  use  of  the  public. 
Here  the  companies  figure  that  the  benefit  to  be  derived  by 
them  more  than  balances  the  expense.  Furthermore,  the 
use  of  them  by  the  public,  while  a minor  consideration  as 
far  as  the  road  itself  is  concerned,  is  a means  of  maintain- 
ing a friendly  feeling  with  the  inhabitants. 

Turnpike  or  toll  roads,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out, 
were  very  extensively  built  in  the  days  preceding  the  ad- 
vent of  the  steam  railway.  These  were  built  with  money 
raised  by  the  ordinary  methods  for  financing  industrial 
enterprises.  A good  many  thousands  of  miles  of  such 
roads  were  chartered  and  constructed  by  private  capital 
amounting  to  millions  of  dollars  before  the  steel  tracks  put 
them  out  of  business.  Only  a few  now  remain  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Virginia  with  now  and  then  scattered  short 
stretches  of  roadway,  and  bridges  over  larger  streams  else- 
where, and  ere  long  they,  too,  will  be  taken  over  by  the 
states  and  become  a part  of  the  great  public  highway.  As 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  309 

late  as  1915  a private  toll  road  in  Tuolumne  County,  Cali- 
fornia, operated  by  a mining  company  was  purchased  by 
the  state  and  nation,  a portion  of  it  being  within  the  Yosem- 
ite  National  Park,  and  made  a part  of  the  California  state 
system.  The  people  will  never  be  content  to  go  back  to  the 
inconvenience  of  being  stopped  by  a turnpike  every  4 or  5 
miles  to  pay  a toll  amounting  in  many  cases  from  1 to  2 
cents  per  ton-mile,  when  the  same  amount  of  money  in  the 
form  of  licenses  and  taxes  will  keep  up  magnificent  systems 
of  public  “free”  highways. 

Public  Financing. — Every  civic  government  has  its 
methods  for  the  collection  of  revenue  to  pay  its  necessary 
expenses.  One  of  the  easiest  things  theoretically  to  do, 
then,  is  to  collect  by  a tax  on  the  property  of  the  district — 
state,  county,  township — sufficient  money  to  meet  expenses, 
including  the  building  and  maintenance  of  roads,  from 
the  property  holders  in  proportion  to  their  wealth  and  turn 
it  over  to  the  proper  officers  for  expenditure.  When  roads 
were  yet  simple  things,  before  they  had  become  elaborate 
and  complicated  structures,  that  might  have  been  done. 
Practically,  however,  even  then  the  working  of  the  roads 
was  a farce;  men  sat  around,  told  stories,  retailed  the 
neighborhood  gossip  and  smoked  their  pipes  or  whittled 
sticks,  while  the  horses  hitched  to  the  scraper  or  plow  stood 
limp  with  one  hip  lower  than  the  other,  eyes  half  shut 
lazily  swishing  at  the  flies  with  their  long  tails.  Soon  the 
necessary  hours  were  passed,  their  poll  or  road  tax  had  been 
“worked  out.”  The  roadway  was  left  in  an  almost  im- 
passable condition  to  be  gradually  worn  smooth  during 
the  intervening  six  months  until  it  came  time  again  to  work 
the  roads.  To  most  of  those  old  timers  the  working  of  the 
road  was  a necessary  evil  and  done  only  because  the  law  re- 
quired it.  When  occasionally  a road  supervisor  insisted 
on  a full  day’s  work  for  a day’s  credit  he  was  a skinflint 
and  at  the  next  election  lost  his  job. 

The  tremendous  amount  of  money  necessary  to  construct 
present  types  of  roads  must,  in  the  long  run,  be  obtained 
from  the  citizens  through  some  medium  of  taxation.  A tax 


310  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

is  a compulsory  contribution  levied  upon  persons,  property, 
business,  occupations,  privileges,  or  enjoyment  of  the 
people  for  the  support  of  government  or  governmental 
functions.  When  levied  upon  persons  it  is  usually  called  a 
poll  or  head  tax;  when  upon  property,  a property  tax; 
when  upon  business  it  may  be  a capital  tax,  sales  tax  or  an 
income  tax;  when  upon  occupations,  an  occupation  tax; 
when  upon  privileges,  a license;  and  when  upon  enjoy- 
ment, a pleasure  tax.  A good  many  of  them  may  be  lumped 
together  under  the  name  of  revenue  taxes.  Some  are  col- 
lected personally  by  a specified  officer  of  the  government, 
while  others  are  collected  indirectly  by  the  sale  of  stamps 
which  are  attached  to  the  article  or  transaction  taxed. 

Taxes  may  also  be  classified  as  direct,  indirect  and  spe- 
cial, all  of  which  are  of  great  importance  to  the  highway. 

Direct  Taxes. — Direct  taxes  are  levied  directly  upon 
property  or  persons.  State  laws  usually  prescribe  that 
general  property  taxes  shall  be  levied  uniformly  over  the 
assessed  values  of  the  district  concerned.  A poll  tax  is 
levied  on  all  persons  of  a particular  age  or  class,  as  all  able- 
bodied  males  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one  and  fifty  years. 
An  income  tax  is  levied  according  to  some  prescribed  rule 
on  the  annual  incomes  of  persons  and  corporations.  An 
income  tax  is  really  a tax  on  business,  either  present  or 
past. 

In  either  case,  whether  the  levy  is  on  his  poll,  upon  the 
assessed  valuation  of  his  property,  or  upon  his  declared 
income,  the  taxpayer  contributes,  theoretically  at  least,  in 
direct  proportion  to  his  ability  to  pay.  The  amount  of  the 
tax  is  definitely  ascertained  some  little  time  in  advance  of 
payment  and  is  collected  directly  by  an  officer  of  govern- 
ment. 

The  levying  of  labor  or  poll  taxes  on  persons  living 
within  a particular  road  district  easily  expanded  to  the 
levying  of  property  taxes  to  care  for  the  local  roads.  How- 
ever, as  the  cost  of  road  building  and  maintenance  in- 
creased the  fronting  or  contiguous  property  could  not 
stand  the  entire  burden,  the  zone  of  taxation  was  widened 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  311 

to  include  larger  areas,  the  township,  the  county  or  the 
state,  depending  on  the  importance  of  the  highway. 

Indirect  Taxes. — Indirect  taxes  are  those  not  levied 
upon  the  various  persons  or  the  property  of  the  district, 
but  are  placed  upon  some  article  of  consumption  or  some 
article  of  manufacture,  upon  imports  and  exports,  or  some 
privilege  or  pleasure.  The  government  does  not  look  to 
each  individual  for  its  money,  but  to  the  seller  or  manu- 
facturer or  importer  of  the  article  taxed,  or  the  licensee, 
or  the  operator  of  the  theater  or  other  pleasure  resort. 
The  amount  of  the  tax  is  added  to  the  price  at  which  the 
article  is  sold  or  to  the  fee  charged  so  that  it  is  at  last 
borne  by  the  ultimate  consumer,  in  proportion  to  his  con- 
sumption of  the  article  taxed,  or  the  privilege  enjoyed. 

Federal  aid  moneys  all  come  from  indirect  taxes,  for  the 
Constitution  forbids  the  national  government  to  levy  direct 
taxes. 

In  Alaska  65  per  cent,  of  the  “Alaska  Fund,”  a fund 
derived  from  all  returns  from  liquor,  occupation  or  trade 
licenses  obtained  outside  incorporated  towns,  must  by  .Con- 
gressional law  of  1905-1906 ; be  spent  in  Alaska  for  roads, 
trails,  and  bridges. 

License  fees  on  motor  cars  and  sales  taxes  on  gasoline 
belong  to  the  class  of  indirect  taxes,  and  are  attempts  to 
charge  the  user  of  the  road  in  proportion  to  the  wear  and 
tear  produced  by  him  or  his  consumption  of  it.  If  the 
motor  car  is  an  express  truck,  a bus,  or  a taxicab  the  tax  is 
passed  on  to  the  patron,  and  this  patron  charges  it  to  the 
cost  of  living  and  attempts  to  pass  it  on  to  his  employer 
through  increased  wages  or  those  who  do  business  with  him. 
It  is  finally  paid  for  by  that  visionary  personage  the  ulti- 
mate consumer — everybody. 

Special  Taxes. — Special  taxes  are  those  levied  upon 
property  for  a particular  improvement  that  is  demanded 
by  public  interest.  They  are  not  uniform  but  must  be  lev- 
ied in  proportion  to  the  benefits  accruing  to  the  property 
from  the  improvement.  This  class  of  taxes  is  very  popular 
for  financing  the  building  of  roads  and  the  paving  of  streets 


312  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

as  well  as  other  public  construction.  The  area  adjacent  to 
the  road  or  pavement  for  a certain  specified  distance  back, 
or  possibly,  halfway  to  the  next  thoroughfare,  is  assessed 
for  the  improvement  and  in  road  work  is  technically 
known  as  “fronting  property.”  Each  piece  of  fronting 
property  is  required  to  pay  toward  the  whole  cost  of  im- 
provement an  amount  proportional  to  the  benefits  derived 
from  the  improvement. 

These  benefits  evidently  decrease  as  the  distance  from 
the  improvement  increases.  They  may  not  always  vary 
in  the  same  ratio,  but  appraisers  will  usually  follow  some 
definite  rule  and  deviate  from  it  only  in  extreme  cases  and 
as  local  conditions  demand.  That  they  should  not  de- 
crease directly  as  the  distance  but  in  some  geometrical  ratio, 
most  engineers  agree.  Law  courts  have  frequently  upheld 
assessments  made  upon  some  such  basis. 

For  the  purpose  of  initiating  an  improvement  by  petition 
it  is  customary  to  adopt  a fixed  scale  for  the  measure  of  the 
benefits,  based  upon  distance,  that  will  probably  be  derived 
from  the  improvement.  Some  legislative  bodies  have 
enacted  definite  rules  for  evaluating  “influence”  in  peti- 
tioning. Generally  the  rule  is  based  upon  some  mathe- 
matical variation.  For  example  that  the  assessed  value  or 
influence  of  property  of  uniform  width  extending  back 
from  the  roadway  shall  vary  as  the  square  root  of  the  maxi- 
mum distance  back.  In  the  figure  on  page  313,  a lot  of  one- 
unit  area  fronting  the  street  is  given  a value  of  31.62.  This 
is  from  the  mathematical  formula 

y2=1000x 

where  y represents  the  assessed  value  or  influence  in  peti- 
tioning, and  x,  the  distance  back,  considering  the  value  of 
y— 100  for  rc=10. 

To  draw  the  curve  mark  off  on  a straight  line  ten  equal 
distances ; at  the  mid-point  of  these  distances  or  units  erect 
perpendiculars.  From  the  formula  calculate  values  for  y 
as  shown  in  the  table;  lay  these  off  on  the  verticals  and 
plot  the  curve  through  their  extremities.  To  clarify  this 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  313 


some,  suppose  that  upon  the  center  of  the  first  space,  there 
being  one  unit  area  or  lot  here,  there  is  stacked  up  the 


/ 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 
7 
Q 
9 

/o 

Assessment  curve. 

value  of  the  assessed  benefits  32  (31.62)  silver  dollars.  On 
the  next  space,  since  there  are  two  lots  extending  back 


314  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

from  the  street,  the  stack  would  contain  45  (44.72)  silver 
dollars — continue  this  for  each  space  and  for  the  number  of 
lots  extending  back.  A curved  line  passing  through  the 
tops  of  the  stacks  representing  the  assessed  values  will  be 
the  influence  curve  plotted. 

For  the  purpose  of  initiating  an  improvement  the  unit 
in  which  the  prospective  benefits  are  to  be  measured  is 
usually  adopted  by  the  governing  or  assessing  authorities. 
Dollars  will  not  do  because  the  cost  will  not  be  known 
until  after  the  improvement  has  been  finished.  In  the 
case  of  roads  and  streets  the  unit  quite  generally  used  is  the 
“front-foot.”  The  number  of  front-feet  in  any  paving 
district  will  be  the  same  as  the  number  of  abutting  feet 
along  the  street  to  be  improved.  A different  definition  for 
“front-foot”  is  given  on  page  318.  The  petitioning  power 
or  influence  of  the  several  properties  constituting  the  whole 
frontage  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  front-feet  as- 
signed to  each  property,  and  these  are  assigned  according 
to  the  adopted  rule  which  is  supposed  more  or  less  closely 
to  measure  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  improve- 
ment. 

When  it  comes  to  paying  for  the  improvement  the  total 
cost  up  to  the  time  of  payment,  including  all  charges 
against  the  district  of  whatsoever  character,  is  divided  by 
the  number  of  front-feet  giving  the  cost  per  front-foot, 
from  which  may  readily  be  determined  the  cost  to  be  as- 
sessed to  each  property  according  to  the  number  of  front- 
feet  assigned  to  it. 

To  illustrate  this  more  concretely,  consider  a road  one 
mile  long.  Its  abutting  length  is  2 miles,  one  on  each  side, 
or  10,560  feet.  The  total  number  of  units  of  influence  in 
the  whole  assessed  area,  and  the  number  of  units  of  as- 
sessed benefits,  is  10,560  front-feet.  The  number  of  these 
units  assigned  or  assessed  to  a particular  plot  of  land  is 
technically  called  its  “frontage.”  Since  all  land  for  a 
specified  distance  from  the  roadway  must  share  in  the  bene- 
fits and  in  the  cost,  therefore,  a piece  of  property  may  have 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  315 

frontage  even  though  it  does  not  touch  the  street  or  road- 
way to  be  improved. 

In  order  to  facilitate  computation,  more  or  less  arbitrary 
variations  are  made  from  the  theoretical  curve  of  assess- 
ment thought  to  be  ideal.  Each  infinitesimal  portion  of 
land  bears  a different  assessment  value  according  to  its 
position  in  relation  to  the  improvement.  It  would  be  im- 
practicable to  divide  the  land  into  an  infinite  number  of 
strips  of  infinitesimal  width  and  calculate  the  assessment 
for  each.  This  could  be  done  by  mathematical  analysis  if 
all  the  boundary  lines  were  straight  lines  and  mathematical 
curves,  but  the  work  would  be  even  then  too  laborious  to 
pay.  It  is  customary  to  divide  the  assessed  territory  along 
each  side  of  the  roadway  into  zones  with  edges  parallel  to 
the  road,  and  to  each  zone  is  given  a weight  or  proportional 
part  of  all  the  assessed  value.  The  weights  are  obtained 
from  the  mathematical  curve  and  are  given  values  cor- 
responding approximately  with  theoretical  calculations. 

Zone  Weights. — To  determine  the  proper  zone  weights 
the  influence  curve  is  plotted  as  in  figure  on  page  319.  The 
base  line,  AB,  is  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  it  is  desired 
to  have  zones ; from  the  mid-point  of  each  part  a perpen- 
dicular to  the  base  line  is  erected  to  meet  the  curve,  shown 
in  the  table,  as  mid-ordinates.  These  are  each  multiplied 
by  100  and  divided  by  the  longest,  in  the  case  of  five  zones, 
94.85,  to  get  them  into  percentages  of  the  whole.  These 
are  now  adjusted  to  near  numbers  for  easy  multiplication. 
For  example,  to  multiply  by  33f  add  two  ciphers  and 
divide  by  3 ; to  multiply  by  25  add  two  ciphers  and  divide 
by  4 ; and  so  on. 

Five-zone  Table 


Zone 

Mid- 

ordinate 

Per- 

centage 

Weight 

Adjusted 

Weight 

Sum 

1 

31.62 

33.3 

33.3 

33! 

33! 

2 

54.77 

57.7 

24.4 

25 

58! 

3 

70.71 

74.6 

18.9 

16f 

75 

4 

83.67 

88.5 

13.9 

15 

90 

5 

94.87 

100.0 

11.5 

10 

100 

316  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


To  get  weights  for  six  zones  take  the  mid-ordinates  at 
8$,  25,  41§,  58-§,  75,  and  91§,  as  follows: 


Zone 

Mid- 

ordinate 

Per- 

centage 

Weight 

Adjusted 

Weight 

Sum 

Another 

Adjusted 

Weight 

Sum 

1 

28.86 

31 

31 

30 

30 

334 

334 

2 

50.00 

52 

21 

20 

50 

20 

534 

3 

64.45 

67 

15 

15 

65 

16| 

70 

4 

76.70 

80 

13 

12* 

774 

10 

80 

5 

87.02 

91 

11 

124 

90 

10 

90 

6 

95.73 

100 

9 

10 

100 

10 

100 

To  Calculate  the  Frontage. — As  has  already  been 
stated,  in  some  states  in  order  to  initiate  a road  improve- 
ment to  be  paid  for  by  special  assessment  a petition  for 
the  same  signed  by  the  owners  of  a majority  of  the  front- 
age is  necessary.  To  determine  the  frontage  for  this  peti- 
tion general  rules  are  laid  down  by  proper  authority  or 
laws  enacted,  stating  the  necessary  procedure  and  the 
weights  allowed  for  calculating  frontage  based  upon  dis- 
tance from  the  roadway  to  be  improved.  In  one  state  the 
land  up  to  a distance  of  2 miles  back  on  each  side  of  the 
roadway  may  be  formed  into  an  improvement  district  which 
constitutes  the  fronting  territory  or  frontage.  The  frontage 
on  each  side  of  the  roadway  is  divided  into  four  zones  equal 
in  width.  The  first  zone,  the  one  nearest  the  road,  has  a 
weight  of  50,  or  it  may  be  said  to  contain  50  per  cent,  of 
the  total  frontage;  the  second  zone  has  a weight  of  25,  or 
contains  25  per  cent,  of  the  frontage;  the  third,  15  per 
cent. ; and  the  fourth,  10  per  cent.  Along  a mile  of  the 
road  there  are,  of  course,  two  miles  or  10,560  front-feet 
frontage.  This  10,560  front-feet  is  not  considered  to  be 
uniformly  distributed  over  the  entire  4 square  miles  (as- 
suming the  district  2 miles  each  side  the  road)  of  assessed 
territory  abutting  the  mile  of  roadway.  Nor  to  be  de- 
creased according  to  the  mathematical  laws  stated  above. 
But  the  distribution  is  by  arbitrary  rule  laid  down  by  legis- 
lative authority.  In  this  particular  case,  assuming  a 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  317 


straight  roadway  and  equal  zones,  the  first  one  will  contain 
50  per  cent,  of  10,560=5280  front  feet.  Since  the  actual 
area  of  the  zone  is  1 square  mile=640  acres,  there  are 
5280-f-640=81/4  front-feet  per  acre  in  this  zone.  The  table 
will  show  similar  results  for  each  of  the  four  zones : 


Zone 

Weight 

Front 

feet 

per  mile 

Front-feet  for  varying  acreages 

1 

acre 

10 

acres 

20 

acres 

40 

acres 

80 

acres 

160 

acres 

1 

50 

5280 

8.250 

82.50 

165.0 

330 

660 

1320 

2 

25 

2640 

4.125 

41.25 

82.5 

165 

330 

660 

3 

15 

1584 

2.475 

24.75 

49.5 

99 

198 

396 

4 

10 

1056 

1 . 650 

16.50 

33.0 

66 

132 

264 

As  an  illustration,  suppose  two  taxpayers  have  farms  of 
exactly  the  same  size,  800  acres  each,  but  placed  differently 
in  regard  to  the  road,  see  figure  below.  Their  influ- 


Assessment  Influence 

Two  farms  of  the  same  shape  but  situated  differently  with  regard 
to  the  improved  highway  have  different  “petitioning  influences” 
and  are  assessed  differently  for  improvements.  Farm  A is  in  con- 
tact with  the  road  for  5280  ft.,  and  has  an  influence  or  assessment 
value  of  4158  front-feet.  Farm  B is  in  contact  1320  ft.  and  has  an 
assessment  value  of  2442  front-feet. 

ences  or  petitioning  power  may  be  calculated  in  front-feet 
from  the  preceding  table  thus : 


318  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


Farm  A 

Farm  B 

Zone 

Weight 

Acres 

Influence 

Front-Feet 

Acres 

Influence 

Front-Feet 

1 

50 

320 

2640 

80 

660 

2 

25 

240 

990 

160 

660 

3 

15 

160 

396 

240 

594 

4 

10 

80 

132 

320 

528 

Total 

800 

4158 

800 

2442 

Contact  Feet . . 

5280 

1320 

Procedure  with  Unequal  Zones  or  Irregular  Lots. — 

Where  the  zones  are  not  equal  in  area  or  the  property  lines 
do  not  intersect  the  roadway  at  right  angles  or  the  lots  are 
irregular  in  shape,  the  method  of  procedure  is  not  quite  so 
simple,  although  the  principle  is  the  same.  While  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  make  the  zones  of  uniform  width  this  is  not  ab- 
solutely necessary.  Likewise  the  ratio  of  weights  vary  with 
different  states  and  cities.  One  city  uses  33£,  20,  16§, 
10,  10,  10  for  the  weights  in  its  six  zones;  another  uses 
33^,  25,  16§,  15  and  10.  Neither  of  these,  as  shown  in 
the  tables  on  pages  315  and  316  varies  materially  from  the 
theoretical  ratio. 

Using  the  latter  of  these  ratios  a small  district  has  been 
worked  out  as  shown  in  the  figure  and  table  on  page  320. 
Incidentally  this  also  shows  a good  method  of  recording 
lot  assessments  during  the  process  of  computations.  The 
work  is  readily  checked.  The  sum  of  the  lot  areas  must 
equal  the  sum  of  the  zone  areas  and  that  of  the  whole  dis- 
trict. The  sums  of  the  weighted  areas  for  the  same  divi- 
sions must  balance.  The  sums  of  front-feet  likewise.  Also 
cross  and  vertical  summations  may  be  made  to  check. 

Second  Method  of  Apportioning  Assessments. — A 
second  method  based  upon  a different  definition  has  some- 
thing in  its  favor.  If  the  front-foot  is  defined  as  a lot  1 
foot  wide  measured  in  the  direction  of  the  street  extending 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  319 

directly  back  through  all  the  zones  to  the  limit  of  the 
assessed  area  it  will  have  a weighed  area  of  W1z1-f-W2z2-|- 
W3Z3  . . . and  so  on,  where  W±  represents  the  weight  of 
the  zone,  whose  width  is  z1}  and  W2  the  weight  of  the  zone, 
width  z2,  etc.  If  zx—z2—zz  . . . etc.,  as  is  usually  the 


case  the  weighted  area  of  1 front-foot  is  CW^-f-Wa+W., 
. . . )z=Wz=100z,  since  W is  always=100.  The  total 
number  of  front-feet  in  the  district,  or  in  any  lot,  will  be  the 
number  of  weighted  feet  in  the  district  or  in  the  lot,  di- 
vided by  lOOz.  In  the  district  represented  on  p.  320,  the 
number  of  front-feet  is  the  total  frontage,  1,936,000  di- 
vided by  4000=484 ; and  for  each  lot  the  amount  shown  in 
the  table.  The  results  obtained  by  the  two  methods  are 
directly  proportional,  so  that  either  may  be  used  for  making 


320  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

assessments.  In  fact  they  are  proportional  to  the  weighted 
areas,  so  that  the  weighted  areas  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  front-feet  if  desired. 

Rule  for  Assessment. — To  get  the  assessment  for  any 
particular  lot  divide  the  total  cost  of  the  improvement  by 


I 

k 

* 

zoa/fs 

LOT  / 

LOT  ?. 

L OT3 

AREA 

WTO  A RE A 

AREA 

WTO.  AREA 

AREA 

WTR  AREA 

AREA 

WTO  AREA 

/ 

33'/, 

2Z80O 

760,000 

4300 

/ 6 0,000 

3600 

/ZO,  OOO 

2400 

SQOOO 

25 

20,400 

5/0,  OOO 

2400 

60,000 

3600 

30,  OOO 

2400 

60,000 

3 

/6% 

/d,ooo 

300,  OOO 

300 

5,000 

3300 

55,000 

2400 

40,000 

4 

/5 

/5,eoo 

234000 

/ 200 

/3,  OOO 

2400 

36,000 

5 

/ 0 

/3,200 

/32.  OOO 

/200 

/2.000 

Tofo / 

90,000 

/, '336,000  1 7500 

Z 2 5,  OOO 

// 700 

''233,  OOO 

JOSOO 

228  OOO 

Front  Fa <2.  + /^L/7att/o3  60C 

6373 

87.7/ 

70.66 

" 

..  zag  ..  484. 

56  25 

70.75 

5700 

1 

LOT  4 

LOT  5 

LOT  6 

LOT  7 

AZ£A 

WTR.  AREA 

AREA 

WTO  AREA 

AREA 

WTR.  AREA 

AREA 

WTO.  AREA 

3000 

/ 00,000 

3000 

/ 00,000 

6000 

200,  OOO 

3000 

75,000 

3000 

75,000 

6000 

/50,  OOO 

3000 

50,000 

3000 

50,000 

3000 

50,000 

3000 

50,000 

3000 

45000 

3000 

45.000 

6000 

90,000 

3000 

30,000 

3000 

30,000 

6000 

60  000 

Tofo/ 

/5000 

300,  OOO 

/. sooo 

300,  OOO 

75000 

400,000 

/ 5.000 

200000 

Front  Fea-t 

92.97 

32.97 

Z23.97 

6/99 

~ TH 

75.00 

75.00 

/oo.  00 

50.00 

/?  rsf  fief  hod 
Fronf'Feef  ~ 600 

We/'ffhfed  Area 
par  Fronf  Foot 
- /.  036.  OOP  - 5226  2? 
600 

Lot  fronfage 

1 We/yhfe d araa 

of  Lof  + J226  % 

Second  Hat  hod 

Fronf  Feef-  ‘ 

* F8d 

Fronf  age  of  each  /of 
- tveighfed  area  of 
/of + 4000 


the  total  number  of  front-feet  in  the  district  and  multiply 
the  quotient  by  the  number  of  front-feet  in  the  lot. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  assessment  of  cost  must 
be  in  proportion  to  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  im- 
provement. The  assessors  will  therefore  have  to  use  sound 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  321 

judgment  and  modify  the  mathematical  results  if  deemed 
wise.  As  a rule  it  is  best  never  to  deviate,  though,  unless 
there  are  extraordinary  good  reasons. 

Miscellaneous  Sources  of  Revenue. — A few  years  ago 
much  was  said  relative  to  the  right  of  a city  to  take  a por- 
tion of  the  earnings  of  public  service  corporations  as  com- 
pensation to  the  public  for  the  use  of  its  streets.  Many 
cities  granted  franchises  under  such  agreements  and  until 
the  automobile  depleted  the  earnings  of  street  railways  and 
the  general  costs  of  manufacturing  gas  and  electricity  went 
up  received  considerable  revenue  from  these  public  utility 
organizations.  While  in  most  cities  this  went  into  the  gen- 
eral fund  money  was  usually  appropriated  from  that  fund 
for  street  maintenance  and  improvement,  so  indirectly,  at 
least,  the  roadways  profited.  In  the  large  cities  franchises 
for  the  use  of  the  public  streets  at,  above,  or  beneath  the 
surface  are  sufficiently  valuable  to  warrant  good  returns 
to  the  public.  It  seems  logical  that  such  money  be  used  fox- 
street  improvements.  Bus  and  truck  lines  fall  directly 
under  this  head,  and  since  they  are  very  largely  conducive 
to  the  distraction  of  pavements,  it  would  seem  as  though 
they  ought  to  pay  for  at  least  a part  of  this  damage.  The 
tax  might  be  graduated  according  to  weight  as  is  now  in 
most  states  the  automobile  license  tax. 

A number  of  cities  are  entering  the  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial enterprises  such  as  the  sale  of  water,  gas,  elec- 
tricity, ice  and  coal.  While  usually  these  are  operated  on 
a low  margin  so  as  not  to  make  money  there  is  nevertheless, 
here,  an  opportunity  to  secure  necessary  funds  for  public 
improvements.  And  if  the  operation  of  these  enterprises  is 
such  that  private  competitors  can  make  reasonable  profits 
the  people  will  be  the  gainer  by  having  more  available 
funds  for  worthy  objects.  It  may  not  be  the  proper  prov- 
ince of  the  government  to  go  into  gainful  enterprises  in 
competition  with  its  own  citizens.  In  fact,  public  opinion 
in  America  has  been  so  one-sided  on  such  questions  that 
wherever  private  enterprises  have  been  taken  over  by  the 
states  or  the  nation  they  have  thereafter  been  conducted 


322  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

free  or  at  the  bare  cost  of  operation.  The  turnpike  roads 
were  bought  by  the  states  and  made  part  of  the  free  public 
road  system.  Cities  like  Cleveland  and  San  Francisco  have 
handled  their  street  railways  at  the  bare  cost  of  operation. 
Efforts  are  being  made  to  make  the  Panama  Canal  free  to 
certain  classes  of  commercial  shipping.  Government  land 
reclamanation  by  irrigation  and  drainage  has  been  made  so 
that  it  could  be  paid  for  by  the  settlers  in  small  amounts, 
running  through  long  periods  of  time.  But  notwithstand- 
ing all  this  there  is  an  awakening  to  the  possibilities  that 
may  come  from  the  development  and  operation  by  govern- 
ment of  resources  that  were  formerly  considered  fair  game 
for  private  exploitation. 

Such  disputes  as  the  two  nation-wide  industrial  strikes 
of  1922,  the  coal  miners  and  the  railway  craftsmen,  are 
rapidly  forcing  those  not  directly  connected  with  the 
“operators”  or  the  “strikers”  to  the  opinion  that  govern- 
ment ownership  is  the  remedy  for  industrial  ailments  of 
this  character.  They  point  to  the  Post  Office  Department 
as  an  argument  in  favor.  While  it  is  a fact  there  has  been 
no  trouble  so  far  with  postoffice  employees,  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  the  same  would  be  true  with  the  railway,  coal  min- 
ing, and  cotton  industries.  And  if  the  Government  should 
begin  taking  over  industrial  and  commercial  enterprises, 
where  would  be  the  end  of  such  paternalism,  and  would  it 
lead  to  sovietism?  It  is  barely  possible  that  governmental 
regulation  has  already  gone  too  far. 

But,  nevertheless,  from  some  such  sources  as  have  been 
mentioned  or  from  a sales  tax  on  gasoline  may  eventually 
come  a relief  to  the  burden  of  taxation  which  now  and 
increasingly  so  in  the  future  must  otherwise  be  borne  by 
the  land. 

Bonds. — It  is  not  always  possible  to  raise  by  taxes 
sufficient  money  to  make  public  improvements  on  a pay-as- 
you-go  basis.  It  would  not  be  economical  to  attempt  to 
pave  one-tenth  the  width  of  a street  each  year.  One  patch 
would  be  worn  out  before  the  next  is  put  down.  The  whole 
must  be  done  at  the  same  time  in  order  not  to  be  vastly 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  323 

wasteful.  And,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  improvement  while 
money  is  being  collected  for  its  payment,  the  municipality 
must  resort  to  borrowing.  It  is  also  argued  that  since 
future  generations  will  enjoy  the  improvement  they  should 
be  required  to  help  pay  for  the  same.  The  indebtedness 
represented  by  the  bonds  become  a lien  against  the  assessed 
property  in  the  state,  county,  township,  or  district  over 
which  they  have  been  laid.  The  taxes  to  pay  off  the  bonds 
will  be  levied  uniformly  over  all  property  or  specially  in 
proportion  to  accruing  benefits  according  to  conditions  pre- 
scribed at  the  time  the  improvements  were  made. 

Kinds  of  Bonds. — Bonds  are  certificates  of  indebtedness 
by  means  of  which  the  repayment  of  borrowed  money  may 
be  spread  over  a series  of  years.  They  are  classified  as 
Sinking  Fund,  Annuity  and  Serial,  depending  on  their 
manner  of  payment. 

Sinking  fund  bonds  are  paid  as  a whole  at  the  end  of 
their  term,  interest  being  paid  annually,  or  at  some  other 
fixed  regular  period,  upon  their  face  value.  The  name 
arises  because  of  the  custom  of  establishing  a sinking-fund 
into  which  a certain  proportion  of  the  debt  is  to  be  paid 
annually,  and  this  loaned  out  so  that  at  the  end  of  the 
period  it  will  amount  to  the  face  of  the  bonds.  Since 
there  is  always  time  lost  between  the  collection  and  loaning 
of  the  sinking  fund  money  the  interest  derived  therefrom 
will  not  usually  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  bonds.  For  this 
reason  and  from  the  further  fact  that  sinking  funds  are 
frequently  drawn  upon  for  other  purposes  than  that  for 
which  they  were  created  this  type  of  bonds  is  less  eco- 
nomical than  either  of  the  other  two  types. 

The  sinking  fund  which  must  be  raised  annually  to  dis- 
charge a debt  of  P dollars  in  n payments,  if  it  can  be  loaned 
at  i per  cent,  is  given  by  the  formula:1 

X 

Sinking  fund  = — p P 

’See  Chatburn’s  “Highway  Engineering,’’  Wiley  & Sons,  New 
York,  p.  335  et  seq. 


324  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


To  illustrate  the  use  of  the  formula  let  the  debt  be 
$10,000,  the  average  rate  that  can  be  expected  from  the 
sinking  fund  4 per  cent,  and  the  time  five  years.  Substi- 
tuting in  the  formula, 


S = 


.04 


(1+.04)5-! 


410,000 


To  solve,  the  denominator  is  first  evaluated: 
Log  (l  + .04)5  = 5 log  1.04 


Taking  the  antilog, 


= 5X0.017033 
= 0.085165 


and 

Then 


(1  + .04)5  =1.21665 

(1  + .04)5- 1 = 0.21665 

O -04  X $10,000 
S“  “0.21665  "-®1846'27' 


Annuity  tables,  which  may  be  seen  at  nearly  any  bank  or 
brokers’  office,  or  in  Bulletin  136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, give  the  annuity  which  will  amount  to  1 in  five 
years  at  4 per  cent  as  0.1846271 ; this  multiplied  by  $10,000 
gives  $1846.27. 

To  the  nearest  cent  the  following  tabular  statement 
shows  the  growth  of  the  sinking  funds: 


Year 

Sinking-fund 
at  Beginning 
of  Year 

Interest  during 
Year 

Annual  Pay- 
ments into 
Sinking-Fund 

Total  Sinking- 
fund  at  End 
of  Year 

1 

0. 

0. 

$1,846.27 

$1,846.27 

2 

$1846.27 

$73.85 

1,846.27 

3,766.39 

3 

3766.39 

150.66 

1,846.27 

5,763.32 

4 

5763.32 

230 . 53 

1,846.27 

7,840.12 

5 

7840.12 

313.61 

1,846.27 

10,000.00 

If  this  loan,  the  bonds,  bore  5 per  cent  interest  the  cost 
to  the  borrower  would  have  been  the  principal  plus  the 
interest  on  principal  less  the  interest  on  the  sinking  fund : 

$10, 000+$2500—$768.65=$ll, 731.35; 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  325 


or  the  interest  on  the  loan  plus  the  sinking-fund  payments : 
$2500+$9231.25=$ll, 731.35 

Serial  Bonds  are  such  that  a fixed  amount  of  the  prin- 
cipal is  retired  at  definite  periods  of  time.  Usually  the 
amount  retired  is  an  aliquot  part  of  the  whole.  The  pay- 
ments to  be  made  at  any  particular  time  is  the  fixed  portion 
of  the  principal  plus  the  interest  on  the  unpaid  portion  up 
to  that  date.  The  periods  of  retirement  are  usually  annual 
or  semi-annual. 

Assuming  the  principal  to  be  P and  that  one  nth.  part  of 
it  is  paid  each  year,  the  formulas  are: 


Annual  payment  for  the  fcth  year 

Interest  for  the  fcth  year  . . . 

Total  amount  of  interest  to  the  end 
of  the  kth  year 

Total  amount  of  interest  and  prin- 
cipal paid  up  to  the  end  of  the  kth 


year  . . . 

The  following  table  shows  how  a debt  of  $10,000  bearing 
5 per  cent  interest  would  be  discharged  by  equal  annual 
payments  in  five  years : 


Year 

Principal  at 
Beginning  of 
Year 

Interest  for 
Year 

Principal  Re- 
paid at  end  of 
Year 

Total  Annual 
Payment 

1 

$10,000 

$500 

$2,000 

$2,500 

2 

8,000 

400 

2,000 

2,400 

3 

6,000 

300 

2,000 

2,300 

4 

4,000 

200 

2,000 

2,200 

5 

2,000 

100 

2,000 

2,100 

Totals 

$1,500 

$10,000 

$11,500 

326  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


Annuity  Bonds  are  those  wherein  a uniform  periodic  pay- 
ment is  made  to  discharge  the  debt  in  a given  time.  The 
formula  for  the  necessary  payment  to  discharge  a debt  of 
P,  with  interest  rate  i in  n years  is, 


Annual  payment  = 


P 

l — (1—0-  • 


Results  may  be  taken  from  books  of  tables  already  re- 
ferred to  or  by  means  of  logarithms  the  formula  may  be 
solved.  For  example  let  it  be  required  to  discharge  a debt 
of  $10,000  in  five  equal  payments,  the  rate  of  interest  being 
5 per  cent. 

Solution : 


(l+£)-"=  1.05”5. 

Log  1.05  = 0.021189 
-5  Log  1.05= -0.105945 
= 9.894055-10 

Log"1  (9.894055- 10)  =0.783529 
1-0.783529  = 0.216471 

Log  Annual  Payment  = Log  i — Log  0.216471 +Log  P 

= Log0.05— Log  0.216471+ Log  10,000 
= (8.698970- 10)  - (9.335398-10)  + 
4.000,000 
= 3.363572 

Annual  Payment  = Log-1  3.363571  = $2309.748. 


The  following  table  shows  the  repayment  of  the  loan  by 
annual  payments  of  $2309.75: 


Year 

Principal 
Owing  at 
Beginning  of 
Year 

Interest  for 
Year 

Principal  Re- 
paid at  End 
of  Year 

Total  Payment 
for  Year 

1 

$10,000.00 

$500.00 

$1,809.75 

$2,309.75 

2 

8,190.25 

409.51 

1,900.24 

2,309.75 

3 

6,290.01 

314.50 

1,995.25 

2,309.75 

4 

4,294.76 

214.74 

2,095.01 

2,309.75 

5 

2,199.85 

109.99 

2,199.75 

2,309.74 

Totals 

$1548.74 

$10,000.00 

$11,548.74 

Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  327 


Since  it  is  more  convenient  to  have  the  bonds  in  even 
hundreds  of  dollars  and  the  interest  in  dollars  some  ad- 
justment from  the  theoretical  amounts  are  usually  made 
but  such  that  the  annual  payments  will  be  near  the  theo- 
retical. Sometimes,  too,  the  bonds  are  made  smaller  for 
the  first  few  years  then  gradually  increase  so  that  the 
natural  growth  in  population  and  wealth  may  bear  its 
proportional  burden.  One  adjustment  for  the  example  just 
given  is  shown : 


Year 

Principal 
Owing  at 
Beginning  of 
Year 

Interest  for 
Year 

Principal  Re- 
paid at  End 
of  Year 

Total  Payment 
for  Year 

1 

$10,000 

500 

$1,800 

$2,300 

2 

8,200 

410 

1,900 

2,310 

3 

6,300 

315 

2,000 

2,315 

4 

4,300 

215 

2,100 

2,315 

5 

2,200 

110 

2,200 

2,310 

Totals 

$1,500 

$10,000 

$11,550 

Total  Cost  by  the  Three  Kinds  of  Bonds. — The  total  cost 
of  a loan,  as  shown  by  the  following  table  taken  from 
Bulletin  136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  is  generally 
greatest  under  the  sinking  fund  plan  and  least  under  the 
serial.  The  serial,  too,  is  the  simplest  to  compute. 


Total  Cost  of  a $100,000  Loan  for  20  Years 
Interest  Compounded  Annually  * 


Annual 

Interest 

on 

Bonds 

Sinking-fund  Bond  Compounded 
Annually  at 

Annunity 

Bond 

Serial 

Bond 

3% 

3i%. 

4% 

4 

$154,431 

$150,722 

$147,163 

$147,163 

$142,000 

4* 

164,431 

160,722 

157,163 

153,752 

147,250 

5 

174,431 

170,722 

167,163 

160,485 

152,500 

5* 

184,431 

180,722 

177,163 

167,359 

157,750 

6 

194,431 

190,722 

187,163 

174,369 

163,000 

* From  Bulletin  136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


328  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

The  sinking-fund  bonds  are  made  out  to  run  the  full 
period  and  are  paid  for  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sinking- 
fund  at  the  end  of  the  term.  Serial  and  annuity  bonds  are 
made  to  mature  in  proportion  to  the  amounts  paid  each 
year.  In  the  example  used  the  serial  system  would  retire 
$2000  worth  of  bonds  each  year,  while  with  the  annuity 
system  $1800  would  be  retired  at  the  end  of  the  first  year ; 
$1900,  the  next;  $2000,  the  third;  $2100  the  fourth,  and 
$2200  the  fifth. 

Interest  coupons,  that  is,  notes  for  the  payment  of  inter- 
est at  stated  intervals  and  providing  for  interest  upon  the 
interest  if  not  paid  at  maturity,  are  usually  attached  to 
the  bonds  for  the  entire  period  that  they  run,  one  to  be 
clipped  at  each  interest  pay  day. 

The  Term  of  Bonds. — Several  states  and  some  of  the 
large  cities  have  issued  bonds  for  road  improvements  for 
long  series  of  years.  This  has  met  considerable  opposition 
on  the  ground  that  the  bonds  should  not  run  longer  than 
the  life  of  the  improvement,  otherwise  there  may  be  an- 
other series  of  bonds  lapping  upon  the  first,  and  perhaps 
a second  and  third  upon  these.  The  arguments  in  favor 
of  the  long  terms  are  that  some  parts,  at  least,  of  the  im- 
provement will  be  permanent,  that  reconstruction  will  cost 
less  than  original  construction  so  that  lapping  will  do  little 
harm,  and  that  money  may  be  obtained  at  a lower  rate  on 
long-term  than  on  short-term  bonds. 

It  is  a quite  general  practice  for  the  abutting  property- 
holders  to  pay  for  the  first  pavement  by  special  assessment. 
Resurfacing  is  frequently  and  general  repairs  almost  uni- 
versally paid  for  by  the  city  as  a whole.  It  would  seem, 
especially  where  property-holders  pay  on  the  installment 
plan,  that  a term  of  bond  well  within  the  life  of  the  pave- 
ment ought  to  be  adopted.  Ten  years  seems  a reasonable 
time,  fifteen  years  at  the  longest.  If  borrowing  is  contin- 
ued and  one  loan  lapped  upon  another  there  comes  a time 
when  the  charges  for  paying  off  the  debt  and  the  interest 
will  more  than  equal  the  amount  that  can  be  borrowed. 
For  instance  suppose  a man  can  continue  to  borrow  $1000 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  329 

per  year  on  five  years’  time,  $200  to  be  paid  each  year. 
During  the  first  year  he  would  owe  $1000,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  he  pays  $200  on  the  principal  and  the  interest. 
He  borrows  another  $1000,  so  during  the  second  year  he 
is  in  debt  $1800  and  must  pay  at  the  end  of  the  year  $400 
principal  and  $108  interest.  The  third  year  he  is  in  debt 
$2400  and  pays  on  principal  $600  and  interest  $144.  The 
fourth  year  his  debt  is  $2800,  and  payment  on  principal 
$800  and  the  interest,  $168.  The  fifth  year  and  every  year 
following  the  debt  is  $3000  and  the  payment  necessary  on 
principal  $1000  and  the  interest  $180.  The  payments  on 
the  principal  amount  is  equal  to  exactly  the  sum  he  can 
borrow.  While  the  amounts  used  in  the  illustration  are 
small  the  principle  is  the  same  for  loans  upon  long-term 
bonds. 

It  would  be  better  for  cities  and  states  to  progress  more 
slowly  than  to  have  saddled  upon  them  a debt  in  perpetuity. 
There  are  times,  however,  when  municipalities  or  other 
districts  will  find  it  the  best  policy  to  borrow  money  and 
issue  bonds.  Serial  and  annuity  bonds  have  this  advantage 
that  as  the  improvement  depreciates  in  value  with  time  the 
burden  of  indebtedness  for  the  improvement  becomes  less. 
But  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  the  part  of  wisdom  to 
have  the  bonds  run  longer  than  the  life  of  the  pavement  for 
which  they  were  issued.  The  pay-as-you-go  plan  is  by  far 
the  most  economical  method  of  procedure,  but  it  cannot 
always  be  followed.  There  are  times  when  budgetary  ap- 
propriations are  insufficient  and  the  people  will  not  stand 
for  heavy  taxation.  In  one  city  it  had  been  the  custom  for 
the  city  by  general  taxation  to  pay  for  paving  intersections. 
As  the  intersections  amounted  to  about  30  per  cent,  of  the 
total  area  paved  that  was  thought  to  be  an  equitable  divi- 
sion, because  the  entire  city  receives  some  benefit  from  each 
pavement  put  in.  But  the  applications  for  paving  were 
much  more  each  year  than  the  city  could  pay  for  from 
its  ordinary  budget.  The  amount  of  paving  done  each  year 
was  limited  by  the  area  of  intersections  that  the  city  was 
able  to  lay.  Some  districts  said,  “We  will  pay  for  the  whole 


330  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

pavement,  intersections  and  all,  rather  than  go  without 
or  wait  over  one  or  two  years.”  The  city  council  allowed 
this  to  be  done,  and,  soon,  even  went  further  and  passed 
an  ordinance  taxing  the  whole  cost  including  the  intersec- 
tions to  the  fronting  property.  This  method  has  been  in 
use  for  several  years  and  the  city  of  less  than  70,000  in- 
habitants has  more  than  200  miles  of  pavement,  and  no 
citizen  was  ever  known  to  protest  the  scheme.  Of  course 
the  public  as  a whole  could  have  paid  for  all  these  inter- 
sections by  general  taxation  just  as  easily  as  the  private 
property-holders  could,  but  if  taxes  had  been  raised  for 
that  purpose  there  would  have  been  many  complaints  that 
the  poor  were  being  taxed  to  pave  the  streets  in  front  of 
the  residences  of  the  rich. 

In  fact,  the  last  idea  mentioned  is  one  of  the  arguments 
in  favor  of  large  bond  issues  such  as  are  found  in  several 
of  the  states  like  New  York,  Maryland,  Illinois,  California, 
Missouri  and  other  states,  to  say  nothing  of  cities  and 
counties.  The  argument  is  that  the  entire  state,  county  or 
city  system  should  be  constructed  about  the  same  time  that 
all  may  have  equal  benefit  of  it  and  that  there  shall  be  no 
intentional  partiality.  Nelson  P.  Lewis  states  in  the  Ameri- 
can Highway  Engineers  ’ Handbook  in  effect  that  on  a 4 per 
cent  basis  the  $100,000,000  bonds  of  the  state  of  New  York 
will  mean  an  annual  tax  of  $4,890,000  for  interest  and 
sinking-fund  charges,  to  say  nothing  of  the  annual  main- 
tenance and  renewal  expenses,  running  through  two  genera- 
tions. He  claims  the  same  system  of  roads  could  have  been 
built,  at  no  greater  annual  appropriations,  in  twenty  years’ 
time  and  the  people  would  not  have  been  saddled  with  debt, 
and  it  will  require  at  least  half  that  time  to  complete  the 
system  with  the  bonds  and  the  debt. 

In  Illinois,  on  the  other  hand,  the  debt,  some  $60,000,000 
is  to  be  paid  from  the  automobile  licenses,  which  will  be 
used  for  its  amortization.  In  Maine  automobile  licenses  are 
also  being  used  to  pay  bonds,  but  only  $500,000  will  be 
issued  in  any  one  year  and  the  total  outstanding  cannot  by 
law  exceed  $2,000,000. 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  331 

Maryland  uses  a short-term-bond — fifteen  years — and 
provides  that  any  road  renewals  required  before  that  time 
shall  be  paid  for  out  of  general  appropriations. 

New  York  city  had  issued  bonds  until  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  taxation  for  streets  had  to  go  to  interest 
and  amortization  so  some  years  ago  a change  was  made  to 
what  they  called  the  pay-as-you-go  plan.  It  took  four  years 
to  make  the  change,  so,  now,  non-revenue-producing  im- 
provements are  made  without  issuing  bonds.  Revenue-pro- 
ducing enterprises,  such  as  water  supply,  transit  lines,  and 
water-front  improvements,  are  still  financed  by  long  term, 
50-year  bonds. 

Stocks  and  Bonds. — Railways,  interurban  trolley  lines, 
street-car  lines,  and  toll  roads  have  been  financed  largely 
by  stock  subscriptions.  Public  roads,  being  without  a rev- 
enue-producing power,  cannot  be  financed  in  this  manner, 
except  perhaps  in  exceptional  cases  where  a few  persons 
are  willing  to  donate  their  money  or  are  building  for  pri- 
vate use  but  are  willing  to  share  the  same  with  the  public. 
Large  bridges  may  occasionally  be  built  in  this  manner, 
the  stockholders  exacting  toll  for  passage  in  order  to  get 
a return  on  their  investment.  However,  such  cases  are 
negligible  in  the  great  national  scheme  of  public  highways. 

National  and  State  Aid. — The  history  of  National  and 
State  Aid  in  the  United  States  has  been  treated  quite 
fully  in  Chapter  Y.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  repeat 
that  here.  Suffice  to  say  that  with  possibly  a few  exceptions 
all  the  states  in  the  Union  now  have  some  form  of  state 
aid — money,  engineering  advice,  testing  materials,  con- 
vict labor,  etc. ; also  the  territories  of  Alaska,  Hawaii,  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  Porto  Rico,  or  else  the  governments 
of  these  divisions  directly  take  charge  of  the  construction 
of  a part  or  a whole  of  the  roads.  The  acceptance  of  Fed- 
eral Aid  practically  made  it  necessary  for  the  states  to  have 
highway  departments  to  distribute  the  Federal  Aid  money 
and  the  equal  amount  the  state  had  to  put  up  to  match  it. 
Several  of  the  states  like  New  York  and  California  had 
raised  by  bond  issues  large  sums  of  money  before  federal 


332  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

aid  was  available  and  distributed  it  to  counties  that  would 
cooperate  in  the  building  of  roads  to  be  united  into  a com- 
prehensive state  system.  New  Jersey,  the  first  State  Aid 
state,  and  Massachusetts,  a close  follower,  had  already 
“paved  the  way”  as  an  example  for  other  states  to  follow. 

Federal  Aid. — The  Federal  Aid  road  act,  approved  July 
11,  1916,  appropriated  “out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury 
not  otherwise  appropriated,  for  the  fiscal  years  ending  June 
30,  1917,  the  sum  of  $5,000,000;  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1918,  the  sum  of  $10,000,000 ; for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1919,  the  sum  of  $15,000,000 ; for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1920,  the  sum  of  $20,000,000;  and 
for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1921,  the  sum  of  $25,000,- 
000.”  In  addition  there  was  appropriated  $10,000,000 — 
$1,000,000  per  year  until  1926 — for  the  survey,  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  roads  within  or  partly  within 
the  national  forests  in  cooperation  with  the  states  in  which 
these  forests  are  located. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  was  by  the  Act,  after 
making  a deduction  of  3 per  cent,  to  cover  expenses  of 
administration,  authorized  to  apportion  the  remainder 
“among  the  several  states  in  the  following  manner:  One- 
third  in  the  ratio  which  the  area  of  the  State  bears  to  the 
total  area  of  all  the  States ; one-third  in  the  ratio  which  the 
population  of  each  State  bears  to  the  total  population  of  all 
States.  . . . ; one-third  in  the  ratio  which  the  mileage  of 
rural  delivery  routes  and  star  routes  in  each  State  bears 
to  the  total  mileage  of  rural  delivery  routes  and  star 
routes  in  all  the  States.  ...” 

States  desiring  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  the 
act  were  required  to  “submit  to  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture project  statements  setting  forth  proposed  construction 
of  any  rural  post  road  or  roads  therein.”  If  approved  the 
states  were  further  to  “furnish  to  him  surveys,  plants, 
specifications  and  estimates  therefor  as  he  may  require.” 
Only  such  projects  as  were  “substantial  in  character” 
might  be  approved.  “Items  included  for  engineering,  in- 
spection, and  unforeseen  contingencies”  may  not  be  greater 


© Underwood  and  Underwood 

A NATIONAL,  HIGHWAY  IN  THE  MOUNTAINS  OF 
MARYLAND 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  333 

than  10  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  the  work.  Upon  the 
final  approval  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  of  the  plans, 
specifications  and  estimates  and  its  certification  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  the  Act  provides  that  there  should 
be  ‘ ‘ set  aside  the  share  of  the  United  States  payable  under 
this  Act  on  account  of  such  project,”  not  to  “exceed  fifty 
per  centum  of  the  total  estimated  cost  thereof.” 

It  was  not  the  intention  to  take  away  from  the  states  any 
right  which  they  might  enjoy  for  the  construction  work  was 
to  be  done  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the  state  within 
which  a project  lay  but  subject  to  the  inspection  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture.  He  also  has  power  to  pay  to 
the  states  the  amount  of  money  set  aside  when  a project 
has  been  satisfactorily  completed  and  also  to  make  pay- 
ments on  the  same  during  the  process  of  construction  not 
to  exceed  the  United  States’  pro  rata  part  of  the  value  of 
the  work  done,  and  not  to  exceed  $10,000  per  mile  of  road 
exclusive  of  bridges  more  than  20  feet  clear  span. 

The  states  snapped  up  this  money  greedily  and  the  de- 
mand for  more  money  became  so  great  that  in  1919  Con- 
gress appropriated  $200,000,000  more,  and  still  later,  1921, 
appropriated  $75,000,000,  and  $15,000,000  for  national 
forest  roads.  And  still  later,  June  18,  1922,  there  was  au- 
thorized an  appropriation  of  $65,000,000  to  be  expended 
during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1923,  and  $75,000,000 
for  the  succeeding  fiscal  year.  At  the  end  of  five  years 
after  the  passage  of  the  Federal  Aid  road  act,  there  had 
been  completed  under  its  terms  7469  miles  of  road  and 
17,977  miles  additional  were  under  construction.  Texas 
ranked  first  in  the  number  of  miles  completed,  with  682 ; 
and  Illinois  had  received  the  greatest  amount  of  federal 
aid  on  projects  completed  and  under  construction,  with 
$11,807,906;  while  Texas  was  a close  second  with  $11,- 
393,485. 

While  the  mileage  built  by  Federal  and  state  aid  is  less 
in  the  more  compact  densely  populated  Eastern  states,  the 
cost  per  mile  is  much  more  as  much  more  expensive  types  of 
roads  are  being  built.  In  the  West  and  South  earth  roads 


334  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

largely  make  up  the  mileage.  It  has  been  objected  that 
these  do  not  properly  come  under  the  wish  of  Congress 
when  it  provided  that  the  fund  should  be  used  only  in  the 
construction  of  “substantial”  roads.  Earth  road  advo- 
cates argue  that  such  features  as  grading,  draining  and 
straightening  roads  may  be  considered  permanent,  in  so  far 
as  the  road  is  ready  for  any  type  of  surfacing  that  may  be 
desired  to  be  laid  at  a later  date.  Recognizing  the  merits 
of  both  contentions  The  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  issued,  in 
1922,  a decision  practically  as  follows : 

The  question  of  a more  definite  policy  to  be  followed  in  con- 
nection with  the  approval  of  earth  road  Federal  Aid  projects 
which  involve  grading  and  drainage  only,  has  for  some  time  been 
under  consideration,  and  it  has  been  decided  that  hereafter  such 
projects  will  only  be  approved  on  condition  that  The  (State) 
Highway  Department  agree,  in  so  far  as  it  may  legally  do  so, 
that  within  a reasonable  time  after  completion  of  the  improve- 
ment of  the  project  as  an  earth  road,  it  will  place  or  cause  to  be 
placed  thereon,  an  adequate  and  substantial  type  of  surfacing. 

By  adequate  and  substantial  type  of  surfacing  is  meant  such 
type  as  will  carry  the  prospective  traffic  with  such  maintenance 
expenses  that  the  total  annual  charges  will  represent  a reasonable 
expenditure  for  the  public  service  rendered  by  the  highway. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  Government  expects  to  assist 
in  the  financing  of  roads  that  appear  adequate  for  the 
purposes  intended. 

State  Aid. — The  machinery  of  paying  state  money  to 
finance  local  roads  throughout  the  counties  varies  greatly 
with  the  different  states.  For  example  half  may  come  from 
Federal  Aid,  half  the  remainder  from  State  Aid,  and  half 
the  remainder  from  County  Aid,  leaving  only  a very  small 
amount  for  the  local  abutting  property.  In  other  states  a 
large  part  falls  on  the  abutting  property.  It  would  seem 
as  though  through  main  traveled  roads  should  be  largely 
financed  by  nation  and  state  while  local  marketing  roads 
which  will  not  require  such  expensive  surfacing  should  be 
largely  locally  financed. 

Present  State  of  Federal  Aid. — The  Bureau  of  Public 
Roads  gives  out  the  information  that  11,930  miles  of  road 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  335 

have  been  constructed  during  the  year  1921  by  the  States  in 
conjunction  with  Federal  Aid,  at  a total  cost  of  $231,963,- 
682,  toward  which  the  government  allotted  $94,057,089. 
There  were  under  way  during  the  year  31,228  miles,  which 
was  about  one-half  the  road  work  carried  on  in  the  United 
States  during  the  year.  It  is  safe  to  assume,  then,  that 
through  the  stimulus  of  Government  Aid,  direct  and  indi- 
rect, more  than  20,000  miles  were  built  during  1921,  and 
that  more  than  40,000  more  miles  are  under  way. 

The  effects  of  Federal  Aid  is  just  now  beginning  to  be 
felt;  a few  years  more  will  see  the  United  States  so  well 
supplied  with  good  roads  that  the  national  appropriations 
for  Federal  Aid  may  be  reduced  materially. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  $190,000,000  available  for  allot- 
ment, $65,000,000  for  the  year  ending  1923,  $75,000,000  for 
the  year  1924,  and  $50,000,000  remaining  from  previous 
appropriations,  will  result  in  the  construction  of  more  than 
25,000  miles  of  road,  which  added  to  the  46,000  miles  that 
are  expected  to  result  from  previous  federal  appropria- 
tions, makes  a total  of  71,000  miles,  or  nearly  40  per  cent 
of  the  estimated  180,000  miles  of  good  roads  in  the  System 
of  Federal  Aid  roads  now  being  outlined. 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  gives  out  the  figures 
up  to  December  31,  1921,  as  follows : 

Federal  Aid  Apportioned,  1917  to  1922  ine.,  $339,875,000 


Projects  under  Construction: 

Total  Estimated  Cost  275,652,104 

Federal  Aid  117,049,690 

Miles  15,834 

Projects  on  which  Construction  is  Completed : 

Total  Estimated  Cost  $221,739,710 

Federal  Aid  95,054,184 

Miles  12,907 


Matching  Federal  Aid  Dollars. — The  main  argument 
that  brought  the  Federal  Aid  law  into  being  was  the  need 
of  farm  to  market  roads  and  the  fact  that  in  the  past  the 
expense  for  building  and  maintaining  roads  fell  most 
heavily  upon  the  farmer.  In  an  excellent  report  made 


336  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

by  Senator  Bankhead  (Senate  Report  250,  64th  Congress, 
1st  Session)  for  the  Committee  on  Post  Offices  and  Post 
Roads,  the  statement  is  made  that  “it  is  probably  con- 
servative to  say  that  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  money 
raised  for  road  purposes”  at  that  time,  1916,  “is  paid  by 
the  owners  of  country  property.”  He  gives  statistics  to 
show  that  the  owners  of  less  than  one-third  of  the  real 
property  of  the  United  States  were  paying  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  cost  of  the  public  roads.  This  did  not 
seem  to  be  equitable,  since  the  country  people  did  not  have 
a monopoly  on  their  use.  The  burden  of  building  and 
caring  for  the  roads  should  be  distributed  among  all  who 
were  benefited  by  them.  There  is  no  very  adequate  method 
of  doing  this,  but  inasmuch  as  all  citizens,  both  city  and 
country,  share  in  the  raising  of  national  revenues,  the  re- 
sult of  federal  appropriations  would  be  to  tend  in  some 
measure  to  equalize  the  cost  of  roads  as  between  city  and 
country. 

It  was  not  thought  wise  to  make  a direct  gift  of  money 
from  the  federal  treasury,  as  that  would  favor  too  much 
of  paternalism,  would  result  in  “pork  barrel”  scandals, 
and  would  stifle  local  initiative,  energy,  and  self-help.  If 
the  federal  government  were  to  enter  upon  the  building 
outright  of  a system  of  roads,  there  would  be  a temptation 
for  the  states  and  counties  to  cease  building  in  the  hope 
the  government  would  eventually  get  around  to  them. 
Likewise  the  demand  for  “pork”  would  be  enormous.  The 
plan  was  therefore  devised  of  requiring  the  state  to  pay 
half  the  expenses  of  road  building,  that  is,  of  matching 
dollars,  fifty-fifty,  with  the  federal  treasury.  It  was 
further  decided  that  federal  money  should  go  into  road  ex- 
tensions, leaving  repairs  and  renewals  to  the  states.  If 
states  refuse  to  perform  the  necessary  maintenance  the  only 
recourse  the  government  has  is  to  withdraw  future  Federal 
aid.  The  object  of  the  government  was  to  add  to  the  stock 
of  good  roads,  and  eventually  secure  the  necessary  20  per 
cent  upon  which  engineers  state,  80  to  90  per  cent  of  the 
entire  traffic  can  be  adequately  accommodated. 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  337 

Many  of  the  states  were  devoid  of  the  necessary 
machinery  to  take  care  of  this  money  and  expend  it 
efficiently  in  the  construction  of  roads  or  to  maintain  them 
in  good  condition  afterward ; so  the  Government  asked  that 
highway  departments  be  created,  if  they  did  not  already 
exist,  in  order  that  there  might  be  skilled  supervision  and 
efficient  organization  on  the  parts  of  the  states  as  that  was 
the  best  insurance  that  these  duties  would  be  thoroughly 
performed.  Furthermore  there  would  be  some  centralized 
authority  at  Washington  and  some  at  each  state  capital; 
the  initiative  and  the  choice  of  location,  types,  and  ma- 
terials for  road  building  would  not  be  left  wholly  to  local 
administrations  which  were  more  likely  to  be  swerved  to 
meet  the  selfish  interests  of  prominent  local  personages 
than  is  possible  in  larger  political  units.  The  judgment  of 
Congress  is  less  likely  to  be  biased  by  local  conditions  or 
by  selfish  individuals  than  would  that  of  a township  or 
county  board,  or  even  the  State  Legislature.  On  the  other 
hand  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  national  federation 
states  have  jealously  guarded  their  rights,  giving  up  very 
reluctantly  to  the  Federal  Government  in  any  attempts  to- 
ward centralization.  So  “no  policy,”  states  the  committee 
report,  “should  be  adopted  which  does  not  permit  the 
retention  by  the  States  of  the  fullest  measure  of  control 
consistent  with  the  necessary  inspection  and  safeguarding 
which  is  customary  with  all  federal  appropriations.” 
Hence  the  states  were  left  the  power  or  not  as  they  saw 
fit  of  availing  themselves  of  the  Government  Aid  money. 
Nearly  if  not  all  the  states  in  the  Union  have  availed  them- 
selves of  Federal  Aid.  It  is  claimed  by  opponents  of  the 
system  that  this  is  because  if  a state  does  not  take  its  quota 
the  money  will  be  appropriated  to  other  states  while  this 
state  will  still  have  to  pay  its  proportional  part  to  the  fund 
from  which  the  money  comes.  This  they  claim  is  pernicious 
and  has  caused  states  to  ask  aid  when  voting  the  taxes  to 
match  the  same  was  extremely  burdensome  to  the  people. 
In  other  words  the  people  ‘ ‘ are  forced  into  a position  where 


338  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

their  only  justification  is  a presumption  that  they  are  grab- 
bing while  the  grabbing  is  good.  ’ ’2 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  framers  of  the  law  that  the 
contribution  from  the  government  would  be  so  substantial 
that  results  of  magnitude  might  be  accomplished  and  still 
at  the  same  time  not  raise  taxes  higher  than  the  people 
could  stand.  The  plan  adopted  seemed  just.  First  the 
road  is  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  people  hence  popula- 
tion should  be  a factor.  A secondary  consideration  was  to 
make  accessible  the  best  products  of  the  farm  and  to  de- 
velop the  land  which  on  account  of  its  remoteness  to 
markets  and  the  conditions  of  the  highways  was  not  in  the 
highest  or  best  state  of  culture.  Area  then  was  a second 
factor.  The  third  factor  was  the  post  roads — rural  delivery 
and  star  routes.  This  last  as  has  been  pointed  out  in  a 
previous  chapter  was  possibly  the  peg  upon  which  the  gar- 
ment could  be  hung  in  the  closet  of  constitutionality.  How- 
ever, it  was  thought  that  “the  interests  of  the  East  are 
protected  by  the  factor  of  population,  the  interests  of  the 
West  should  receive  consideration  through  including  area 
as  a factor  of  apportionment.  Finally,  the  direct  interest 
of  the  federal  government,”  according  to  the  Committee, 
‘ ‘ as  represented  by  the  great  mileage  of  rural  delivery  and 
star  routes  for  the  transportation  of  mail  and  parcel  post 
should  have  some  weight  in  the  granting  of  federal  funds.  ’ ’ 

Federal  Aid  has  now  been  in  operation  for  five  years. 
Most  people  think  it  has  demonstrated  its  worth.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  that  five  years  is  a short  time  for  the 
stupendous  task  of  transforming  an  almost  impassable 
conglomeration  of  roads  into  a usable  system  of  comfortable 
highways.  The  soldiers  who  went  to  France  during  the 
World  War  came  back  enthusiastic  converts  of  good  roads. 
Foreigners  traveling  in  this  country  have  frequently  mar- 
veled at  the  paucity  of  good  roads.  The  natives  having 
grown  up  here  knew  no  better.  The  Federal  Aid  experi- 
ment has  been  the  means  of  bringing  the  people  to  a par- 
tial knowledge  of  the  benefits  of  better  highways.  They 
will  not  be  content  to  go  backward.  In  the  words  of  a 

’Newspaper  article. 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  339 

committee  report  to  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of 
Nebraska3:  “The  (Federal  Aid)  System  seems  to  be  well 
grounded  and  is  nourished  and  sustained  by  nation-wide 
organizations,  that  are  banded  together  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  and  extending  the  system,  and  inasmuch  as 
they  seem  to  be  powerful  enough  to  influence  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  system,  it  will  no  doubt  be  maintained  until 
some  organization  equally  influential  makes  of  the  matter 
an  issue  and  overturns  the  system.”  The  Committee,  while 
evidently  prejudiced  against  matching  dollars  with  the 
Federal  Government,  admitted  the  value  to  the  state  of  the 
work  done  and  that  “there  is  no  more  important  internal 
improvement  in  which  the  state  can  engage.” 

Under  a Federal  highway  act  signed  November  9,  1921, 
$75,000,000  becomes  available  by  Federal  Aid  for  road  con- 
struction in  the  several  states  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1922,  and  in  addition  $15,000,000  for  roads  in 
national  forests.  This  new  Federal  Aid  Act  is  very  similar 
to  the  act  of  1916.  The  method  of  allotment  is  as  before ; 
the  ratio  of  allotment  nearly  the  same,  but  a new  feature 
is  that  the  minimum  allotment  to  any  state  shall  not  be 
less  than  one-half  of  1 per  cent  of  the  total  to  all  states, 
which  in  this  case  amounts  to  $365,000.  This  increases 
the  apportionment  to  the  four  states  of  Delaware,  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and  Vermont. 

The  new  Act  changes  the  manner  in  which  a state  may 
use  its  allotment.  Each  state  must  select  a connected  road 
system  not  exceeding  7 per  cent  of  its  road  mileage  for  im- 
provement with  Federal  Aid.  This  system  will  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  one  to  be  known  as  “interstate  highways” 
the  other  as  “intercounty  highways.”  The  interstate  high- 
ways must  not  exceed  three-sevenths  of  the  system  selected ; 
on  them  not  more  than  60  per  cent  of  the  Federal  Aid 
Allotment  can  be  spent  without  the  joint  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Highway  Depart- 
ment. The  intercounty  highways  will  receive  the  remainder 
of  the  allotment. 

’ Report  of  a Joint  Committee  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  the 
1921  Session  of  the  Nebraska  Legislature  regarding  the  relative  cost 
of  road  construction  by  the  state  and  by  various  counties. 


340  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


Some  of  the  Western  states  where  there  are  large  areas 
of  unappropriated  public  land  due  to  the  desert  or  moun- 
tainous nature  of  the  country,  found  it  to  be  impossible  to 
continue  the  matching  of  Government  funds.  The  new  act 
provides  that  in  states  where  the  unappropriated  public 
land  amounts  to  more  than  5 per  cent  of  the  area  of  the 
state,  the  50  per  cent  allotment  is  increased  by  an  amount 
equal  to  one-half  the  percentage  of  unappropriated  public 
land  in  the  state. 

Before  any  funds  can  be  paid  to  any  state,  the  state  must 
appropriate  money  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Highway 
Department  to  match  the  Federal  apportionment  or  so 
much  as  it  desires  to  avail  itself  of.  Likewise  it  must 
provide  suitable  means  for  the  maintenance  of  Federal 
Aid  highways. 

The  allotment  to  each  state  of  Federal  Aid  funds  avail- 
able June  30,  1922,  under  the  act  signed  November  9,  1921, 
authorizing  an  appropriation  of  $75,000,000,  follows: 


State 

Allotment 

State 

Allotment 

Alabama 

. . . . $1,553,420 

Nebraska 

. . SI, 581, 189 

Arizona 

. . . . 1,053,281 

Nevada 

953,436 

Arkansas 

. . . . 1,264,142 

New  Hampshire. . 

365,625 

California 

. . . . 2,462,098 

New  Jersey 

942,870 

Colorado 

. . . . 1,341,175 

New  Mexico 

. . 1,189,823 

Connecticut.  . . . 

480,897 

New  York 

. . 3,696,447 

Delaware 

365,625 

North  Carolina.  . . 

. . 1,709,333 

Florida 

886,825 

North  Dakota.  . . 

. ■ 1,164,714 

Georgia 

. . . . 1,997,957 

Ohio 

. . 2,823,004 

Idaho 

938,536 

Oklahoma 

. • 1,752,339 

Illinois 

. . . . 3,246,281 

Oregon 

. . 1,182,663 

Indiana 

. . . . 1,958,855 

Pennsylvania .... 

• ■ 3,39S,925 

Iowa 

2,102,872 

Rhode  Island .... 

365,625 

Kansas 

. . . . 2,102,281 

South  Carolina . . . 

. . 1,061,237 

Kentucky 

. . . . 1,417,178 

South  Dakota 

. . 1,204,060 

Louisiana 

996, 9S9 

Tennessee 

. . 1,647,692 

Maine 

695,160 

Texas 

. . 4,425,172 

Maryland 

640,629 

Utah 

849,417 

Massachusetts.  . 

. . . . 1,096,176 

V ermont 

365,625 

Michigan 

. . . . 2,249,532 

Virginia 

1,456,828 

Minnesota 

. . . . 2,123,597 

Washington 

. . 1,103,709 

Mississippi 

. . . . 1,294,906 

West  Virginia .... 

802,359 

Missouri 

2,448,128 

Wisconsin 

. . 1,894,S15 

Montana 

. . . . 1,546,885 

Wyoming 

934,617 

Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  341 

The  question  of  whether  or  not  it  is  wise  for  a state  to 
match  the  Federal  Aid  appropriation  for  the  purpose  of 
building  roads  is  a debatable  one.  When  people  see  the 
amount  of  their  taxes  going  up  by  leaps  and  bounds  they 
naturally  look  for  some  place  for  retrenchment.  The  road 
tax  being,  now,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  state  is  naturally 
subject  to  attack. 

In  the  consideration  of  the  problem  two  questions  stand 
out  prominently : Do  the  results  so  far  obtained  justify  the 
expenditure?  and  can  the  United  States  and  the  States 
afford  to  continue  the  expenditures  ? 

Reports  from  the  Bureau  of  Public  Highways  indicate 
that  with  the  aid  of  the  $350,000,000  previously  appro- 
priated by  the  Government,  17,000  miles  of  road  had  been 
completed  up  to  May  31,  1922,  and  in  addition  nearly 
14,500  miles  were  under  construction  involving  more  than 
$287,500,000  of  Federal  Aid.  To  match  this  fund  the 
states  have  appropriated  approximately  $380,000,000,  mak- 
ing a total  of  $667,500,000.  The  Bureau  states  the  average 
cost  of  roads  per  mile  of  all  types  of  construction  with 
Federal  Aid  has  been  $17,120,  of  which  43  per  cent  has 
been  the  cost  to  the  government.  About  one-fifth  of  the 
Federal  system,  that  it  is  thought  will  be  sufficient  to  ac- 
commodate 80  per  cent  of  the  traffic,  has  been  completed. 
This  seems  to  be  reasonable  progress  considering  the 
stupendousness  of  the  task. 

The  expenses  so  far  are  a little  more  than  $6  per  person 
in  six  years  or  approximately  $1  per  person  per  year, 
counting  the  population  of  the  United  States  as  110,000,- 
000.  If  any  one  is  anxious  to  save  this  expense  it  can  easily 
be  done  by  a little  economy.  Refraining  from  smoking  one 
cigar  a month,  from  drinking  one  ice-cream  soda  a month, 
from  going  to  three  picture  shows  in  a year,  or  by  allowing 
the  automobile  to  stand  in  the  garage  one  or  two  Sundays 
per  year. 

Practically  each  state  in  the  Union  could  easily  collect 
its  share  of  the  match  money  by  a one-cent  tax  per  gallon 
on  gasoline.  A score  of  states  have  adopted  this  method 


342  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

and  more  will,  as  by  this  means  the  land  which  is  highly 
burdened  with  general  and  school  taxes  will  be  considerably 
relieved,  and  the  road  tax  shifted  to  the  road  users.  The 
man  who  owns  an  automobile  will  not  thus  have  the 
ultimate  amount  which  he  pays  for  roads  decreased,  but 
the  man  who  does  not  own  an  automobile  will  be  relieved 
in  so  far  as  the  gasoline  tax  is  not  passed  on  in  the  way  of 
increased  charges.  But  the  gasoline  tax  will  not  appear  on 
the  annual  tax  receipts  and  therefore  is  less  noticeable. 

The  answer  to  the  question,  “should  the  states  continue 
to  match  the  Federal  Aid  dollar?”  in  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  is,  “yes,  until  the  Federal  system  of  180,000  miles  of 
road  is  completed.”  This  ought  to  be  accomplished  in  about 
ten  years. 

Most  of  the  Mid-west  and  Western  states  pay  into  the 
national  Federal  Aid  fund,  as  duties,  revenue  taxes,  etc., 
less  than  they  receive  in  the  way  of  Federal  Aid.  These 
states,  therefore,  are  the  gainers  in  the  matching  process. 
Even  where  there  is  no  financial  advantage  as  in  some  of 
the  more  populous  states,  there  is  a psychological  advan- 
tage in  the  stimulus  which  this  money  gives  toward  the 
building  of  good  roads.  Good,  dependable,  365-days-a-year 
roads  must  come.  They  are  demanded  by  the  10,000,000 
pleasure  automobile  owners  and  their  30,000,000  additional 
passengers ; they  are  demanded  by  the  more  than  2,000,000 
commercial  vehicle  owners  and  their  50,000,000  patrons ; 
they  are  demanded  by  the  man  who  lounges  along  in  a 
smooth-riding  silent  $10,000  car;  and  they  are  demanded 
by  the  driver  of  the  sputtering,  rough-riding,  ear-splitting 
$400  car.  Yes,  good  roads  must  come,  and  the  Federal 
Aid  movement  begun  at  the  behest  and  in  behalf  of  the 
farm  element  will  continue  even  if  the  burdens  of  building 
and  maintenance  be  shifted  through  the  gasoline  tax  and 
the  automobile  license,  from  the  farm  and  city  real  estate 
to  the  owners  and  users  of  motor-driven  vehicles.  With 
all  these  influences  working  it  is  not  likely  legislatures  will 
refuse  to  match  dollars  with  the  Government. 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  343 

Financing  Highway  Transportation. — There  are  at  least 
three  methods  of  financing  highway  transportation:  (1) 
Individual;  (2)  Partnership;  and  (3)  Corporation. 

Individual. — The  individual  method  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes:  (1)  Those  that  are  a part  of  auxiliary  to  or 
accessory  to  other  business,  and  (2)  those  that  make  up  or 
compose  the  business  itself. 

The  highway  transport  lines  that  are  auxiliary  to  other 
business  may  be  illustrated  by  the  delivery  truck  of  the 
grocer,  the  trucks  for  hauling  to  and  from  the  depots  of  large 
department  stores,  or  better  the  trucks  owned  by  creameries 
which  perform  a sort  of  express  service  for  the  producers 
of  milk  and  cream.  The  Fairmont  Creameries,  with  head- 
quarters at  Omaha,  operate  more  than  140  trucks,  many  of 
which  make  regular  trips  over  established  routes,  picking 
up  at  the  farmer’s  gate  full  cans  of  cream  and  milk  and 
leaving  empty  ones.  The  cost  of  these  services,  while 
ostensibly  borne  by  the  creamery,  must  of  necessity  be 
accounted  for  and  charged  to  the  expense  of  doing  business 
or  to  the  individual  sellers  of  cream.  The  business  is  not 
run  as  a trucking  or  transportation  business,  but  as  a 
creamery,  a department  store,  or  a grocery,  and  is  reckoned 
in  as  part  of  the  annual  expense  or  overhead  charges.  The 
motor  to  the  truck  gardener  is  of  as  much  importance  as 
any  other  part  of  his  business.  In  fact  his  plant  would  be 
as  handicapped  without  it  as  would  a clock  without  its 
hour  hand.  The  same  may  be  said  of  practically  all  enter- 
prises which  depend  on  transportation  upon  the  highways 
as  a function  of  their  business. 

All  such  transportation,  therefore,  is  financed  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  the  business  itself,  in  fact  it  is  a part 
of  it. 

In  the  other  class  of  individual  ownership  the  business  is 
usually  so  small  that  one  person,  the  owner,  can  look  after 
the  whole  of  it.  He  may  or  may  not  have  any  assistants. 
However,  he  finances  it  as  an  individual.  He  either  has  the 
money  at  the  beginning  or  is  able  to  borrow  it.  If  he  bor- 
rows it  he  gives  his  note  acknowledging  the  debt  and  stating 


344  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

the  time  or  times  for  payment,  rate  of  interest  and  any 
other  stipulations  that  might  have  been  entered  into  at  the 
time  of  securing  the  loan.  He  will  probably  give  a mort- 
gage on  his  property,  that  is  a writ  showing  the  debt  to  be 
a lien  on  the  property  under  which  the  loaner  of  the  money 
may,  if  it  is  not  paid  as  stipulated,  foreclose  and  sell  the 
property  for  the  settlement  of  the  debt.  It  becomes  null 
when  the  note  on  which  it  is  based  has  been  paid.  If,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  “recorded”  in  the  office  of  the  Register 
of  Deeds  or  other  place  set  aside  for  that  purpose,  it  will 
have  to  be  “released”  and  the  release  recorded  in  order 
to  clear  the  title  to  the  property. 

Partnership. — An  agreement  of  two  or  more  persons  to 
combine  their  property,  labor,  or  skill  for  the  purpose  of 
transacting  any  particular  business  for  their  joint  profit  is 
called  a partnership.  The  agreement  may  be  oral  or 
written.  The  partnership  is  just  as  extensive  as  the  busi- 
ness it  is  proposed  to  do,  but  no  more  so.  Each  partner  is 
entitled  to  his  share  of  the  profits  as  arranged  for  in  the 
agreement  but  in  the  absence  of  any  stipulation  the  law 
will  presume  equal  shares.  The  partners  may  agree  on  a 
way  of  dividing  the  losses,  but  such  agreement  will  only 
hold  as  against  those  to  whom  it  is  made  known  and  credit 
has  been  given  accordingly.  The  laws  usually  provide  that 
articles  of  partnership  may  be  made  known  generally  to  the 
public  by  proper  publication  and  recording  in  a place 
designated  for  that  purpose.  Although  long  neglect  of  any 
articles  of  agreement  will  act  as  a waiver  against  an 
innocent  creditor. 

In  a partnership  the  action  of  one  partner  with  some 
exceptions,  binds  the  whole  partnership,  so  that  rather  than 
have  several  members  to  a partnership  it  is  better  to  form 
a corporation.  A partnership  may  borrow  money  and 
mortgage  its  property  just  the  same  as  an  individual. 

A transport  line  then  could  be  financed  by  each  partner 
putting  in  a definite  proportion  of  the  capital.  Two  men 
might  enter  into  a partnership  and  one  man  furnish  all 
the  capital,  the  other  the  skill  and  experience  necessary  to 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  34 5 

operate  the  business,  the  profits  and  losses  to  be  shared  in 
a manner  agreed  upon.  However,  without  notice  to  a 
creditor  at  the  time  the  debt  was  entered  into  each  partner 
could  be  held  for  the  entire  debt  if  partnership  property 
would  not  take  care  of  it. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a partnership  are 
that  larger  capital  may  be  obtained  and  more  business  done, 
the  benefit  of  business  skill  and  experience  may  be  pro- 
cured, and  the  work  of  management  may  be  sub-divided 
among  the  several  partners  so  that  each  may  become  more 
proficient,  or  more  efficiently  administer  his  own  depart- 
ment. 

There  will  be  no  particular  difference  between  the 
financing  of  the  partnership  and  the  individual  ownership, 
except  perhaps  more  capital  will  come  in  with  more 
partners.  The  partnership  agreement  should,  to  prevent 
misunderstanding,  be  carefully  drawn  up  in  writing  and 
signed  by  each  partner.  It  should  state  the  amount  and 
kind  of  capital  each  partner  puts  into  the  business,  the 
relations  and  duties  of  the  partners,  and  the  manner  in 
which  profits  and  losses  are  to  be  shared. 

Corporation. — A corporation  is  a legal  combination  of 
two  or  more  persons  into  an  artificial  personage  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  on  some  lawful  business  under  such 
grants  as  secure  to  it  a legal  existence  and  power  to  act 
even  though  the  individual  memberships  change. 

In  this  type  of  proprietorship  the  individual  owners 
called  stockholders  are  liable  for  the  debts  of  the  business 
only  to  the  extent  of  their  stockholding,  in  some  states  to 
double  the  par  value  of  their  stock.  The  stockholders  have 
a voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  business  only  to  the  extent  of 
their  ownership  of  stock,  such  ownership  being  evidenced 
by  certificates  of  stock  issued  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  shares  of  stock  owned.  State  laws  are  voluminous  and 
restrictions  are  numerous  for  the  regulation  of  corpora- 
tions. The  organization  must  be  made  according  to  law 
and  then  incorporated.  It  must  conduct  its  work  accord- 
ing to  definite  requirements,  file  regular  reports,  pay 


346  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

special  taxes,  and  so  on.  The  business  is  conducted  through 
a board  of  directors  elected  by  the  stockholders  at  regular 
intervals  of  time  specified  in  the  articles  of  incorporation. 
The  board  of  directors  usually  elects  its  own  officers  and 
appoints  a manager  or  managers  for  the  business.  The 
operation  of  the  business  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
manager,  who  may  as  a rule  appoint  his  assistants  and 
employees,  unless  this  latter  be  designated  to  under  officers. 
The  manager  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  board  of 
directors,  and  the  directors  hold  their  office  at  the  hands  of 
the  stockholders.  So  that  the  real  owners  have  only  an 
indirect  supervision  over  the  affairs  of  the  business.  The 
corporation  is  given  a name  and  seal  and  is  empowered  to 
act  as  an  individual,  may  borrow  money,  own  property,  sue 
and  be  sued.  Notwithstanding  its  somewhat  cumbersome 
machinery  the  corporation  is  a favorite  form  of  organiza- 
tion possibly  because  of  its  limited  liability  feature,  its 
close  centralized  control  even  though  the  ownership  be 
spread  over  large  numbers,  and  the  amount  of  money 
handled  be  great. 

The  large  transportation  companies,  the  railways,  the 
steamship  lines,  electric  street  cars,  canals,  trolley  lines, 
pipe  lines,  and  so  on,  when  held  under  private  ownership, 
are  all  organized  in  this  manner.  There  are  many  bus 
lines  and  many  truck  lines  already  incorporated,  and  with 
time  the  number  will,  no  doubt,  rapidly  increase. 

The  shares  of  stock  usually  have  a par  value  of  $100. 
These  are  sold  to  investors  to  obtain  the  working  capital. 
The  amount  of  stock  is  limited  by  the  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion and  must  not  exceed  by  the  laws  of  most  states  an 
amount  conducive  to  good  business.  The  stock  may  be 
either  common  or  preferred.  Holders  of  preferred  stock 
have  some  preferment  such  as  drawing  a definite  fixed 
rate  of  interest  while  common  stock  receives  no  dividends 
until  the  interest  on  the  preferred  stock  is  paid. 

Corporations  may  also  raise  money  by  selling  bonds. 
These  are  certificates  of  indebtedness,  bearing  a fixed  rate 
of  interest,  payable  at  definite  fixed  periods.  Like  other 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  347 

bonds  they  may  be  either  sinking-fund,  serial  or  annuity. 
Bonds  differ  from  stocks  in  that  their  owners  have  no  voice 
in  the  affairs  of  the  corporation. 

Money  may  also  be  borrowed  on  the  notes  of  the  cor- 
poration signed  by  its  officers,  when  authorized  by  the 
board  of  directors. 

Since  the  laws  of  the  several  states  vary  so  widely  and 
there  are  so  many  of  them,  it  is  impossible  to  give  even  a 
brief  synopsis  here.  Should  any  highway  transport  com- 
pany wish  to  incorporate  it  would  be  well  to  seek  the  advice 
of  a lawyer  and  have  him  draw  up  the  articles  of  incor- 
poration and  see  that  the  laws  of  the  state  are  fully  com- 
plied with. 

Public  Ownership. — It  is  not  the  intention  here  to  go 
into  a lengthy  discussion  of  the  merits  and  demerits  of  pub- 
lic ownership,  but  merely  to  mention  this  as  a method  of 
financing  transportation  lines. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  public  ownership  of  railways 
and  canals  has  long  been  the  practice.  In  England  there 
is  private  ownership  of  railways,  but  the  post  office  depart- 
ment operates  the  telegraph  lines.  In  this  country  the 
Government  has  built  and  operates  several  ship  canals, 
including  the  great  Panama  canal.  The  state  of  New  York 
owns  and  operates  the  Erie  Canal.  During  the  War  the 
operation  of  railways  was  taken  under  supervision  by  the 
Government,  but  this  has  now  been  turned  back  to  the 
several  lines.  The  public  regulation,  however,  of  railways 
is  so  strict,  that  they  have  so  little  initiative  and  freedom 
left,  so  little  power  to  make  rates,  so  little  choice  as  how  to 
deal  with  employees,  that  they  might  just  as  well  be  ope- 
rated by  the  Government.  Indeed,  it  is  frequently  stated 
that  there  is  quite  a large  minority  of  the  American 
citizenship  that  would  like  to  see  the  Government  take  over 
all  the  railways  and  operate  them  as  it  does  the  Post  Office 
at  the  mere  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance. 

On  the  other  hand,  a very  large  number  of  persons  be- 
lieve that  the  best  governed  nation  is  the  one  least  governed 
and  that  the  ordinary  commercial  and  financial  laws  of 


348  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 

supply  and  demand  should  regulate  prices  and  that  private 
capital  should  govern  all  industries. 

There  are  places,  however,  where  it  seems  to  be  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  establish  public  ownership.  First,  where  the 
amount  of  money  necessary  to  finance  and  operate  the 
enterprise  becomes  a menace  to  the  rest  of  the  country,  or 
where  it  is  so  large  that  it  becomes  a practical  monopoly, 
then  it  would  seem  just  for  the  Government  to  step  in  and, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  force  an  un- 
scrambling, or  else  take  it  over  and  run  it  as  a public  in- 
dustry. 

Second,  where  the  work  is  so  large  that  it  is  difficult  to 
get  private  enterprise  to  take  it  over  without  grants  of 
privileges  that  would  be  exorbitant  and,  perhaps,  scan- 
dalous. The  building  of  the  Panama  Canal  proved  too 
great  a task  for  a French  private  company.  This  does  not 
say  that  an  American  company  could  not  have  completed 
it,  but  to  get  money  for  a doubtful  or  uncertain  proposition 
is  not  easy.  The  great  Sault  Ste.  Marie  locks  under  Govern- 
ment control  are  very  satisfactory,  probably  more  so  than 
if  they  were  operated  by  private  capital  for  private  profit. 

Third,  public  ownership  is  advisable  where  private  lines 
of  transportation  fail  to  accommodate  the  public. 
Numerous  applications  are  being  made  nowadays  by  rail- 
roads for  the  privilege  of  discontinuing  trains  on  branch 
lines.  In  some  cases  these  have  been  allowed  by  railway 
commissions,  in  others  refused.  But  if  they  are  not  paying, 
the  public  will  not  indefinitely  force  the  railways  to  main- 
tain them.  Then  it  will  be  proper  for  the  Government  to 
take  them  over,  finance  and  operate  them,  even  at  a loss  if 
necessary,  providing  the  same  work  can  not  be  done  by 
private  highway  transport  lines. 

Likewise,  street-car  lines  are  complaining  bitterly  at  the 
inroads  of  the  automobile  upon  their  business.  But  street- 
car lines  are  necessary  to  the  social  and  business  functions 
of  a city.  It  cannot  very  well  get  along  without  them. 
The  streets  are  hardly  wide  enough  to  accommodate  the 
passenger  and  commercial  traffic  as  it  is.  With  the  street 


Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines  349 

cars  off  that  would  be  doubled  with  very  much  increased 
congestion  and  loss  of  time  and  a correspondingly  greater 
number  of  accidents. 

The  street  cars  in  every  considerable  municipality  must 
be  kept  going.  The  Des  Moines  strike  of  1921  proved  that 
conclusively.  It  may  be  necessary  for  the  city  governments 
to  take  them  over  and  pay  any  deficit  from  public  taxation. 
But  even  that  will  be  money  well  expended. 

The  same  arguments  apply  to  those  lines  of  railroad 
whose  traffic  consists  largely  of  short  haul  and  compara- 
tively small  lots.  If  they  cannot  be  made  to  pay  it  may  be 
necessary  for  the  public  to  take  them  over  and  keep  them 
running  on  their  longer  hauls  even  at  a loss  in  order  to 
prevent  the  congestion  that  would  ensue  to  the  public  roads 
should  all  the  traffic  be  forced  to  the  truck.  Also,  trucks 
and  buses  are  not  altogether  dependable  in  spells  of  bad 
weather,  and  there  may  be  other  conditions  that  would 
make  the  steam  train  the  better  and  more  economical  trans- 
portion  agent,  as  it  always  is  where  large  quantities  are  to 
be  transported.  It  would  be  better  to  try  to  regulate  all 
transport  service  that  each  might  be  made  into  a paying 
proposition.  If  it  cannot  be  done  by  regulation  the  power- 
ful long  arm  of  government  will  have  to  take  charge. 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Blanchard,  A.  II.,  “Elements  of  Highway  Engineering,”  Chap- 
ter II,  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Blanchard,  A.  H.  and  Drowne,  H.  B.,  “Text-book  on  High- 
way Engineering,”  Chap.  XXVII,  John  Wiley  & Sons, 
New  York. 

Bradt,  S.  E.,  “Financing  Permanent  Roads,”  Proceedings 
National  Conference  on  Concrete  Road  Building,  1914,  p.  26, 
Chicago. 

Chatburn,  G.  R.,  “Highway  Engineering,”  pp.  335  et  seq. 
John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

“Financing  and  Bonding  Highway  Work,”  Proceedings  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XLVIII,  four  articles  by  F.  S.  Green,  pp. 
511-512;  H.  S.  Sisson,  pp.  513-515;  E.  C.  Lunt,  pp.  337- 
339;  and  J.  N.  Cole,  326-330. 


350  Financing  Highways  and  Transportation  Lines 


Hews,  L.  T.  and  Glover,  J.  W.,  “Highway  Bonds,”  Bulletin 
136,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Lewis,  Nelson  P.,  “The  Planning  of  the  Modern  City,”  Chap. 
XIX;  “Financing  of  Highway  Improvements,”  American 
Highway  Engineers’  Handbook,  Section  28;  John  Wiley  & 
Sons,  New  York. 

Nolen,  John,  “City  Planning,”  Chap.  XYI,  D.  Appleton  & Co., 
New  York. 

Robinson,  C.  M.,  “City  Planning,”  Chap.  XVII,  G.  P.  Put- 
nam’s Sons,  New  York. 

Tilson,  G.  W.,  “Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials,”  Chap. 

VI,  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Van  Ornum,  “Theory  and  Practice  of  Special  Assessments,” 
Transactions  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  XXXVIII,  pp.  336-422. 


CHAPTER  XI 


HIGHWAY  ACCIDENTS  AND  THEIR  MITIGATION 

It  may  be  true  that  accidents  are  commonly  the  result 
of  disorder,  but  as  there  seems  to  be  no  panacea  for  dis- 
order, accidents  cannot  entirely  be  prevented.  The  best 
thing  that  can  be  done  at  present  is  to  arrange  everything 
connected  with  the  road  so  that  the  chance  of  accident 
will  be  kept  as  low  as  it  is  possible  for  imperfect  hu- 
manity to  keep  it. 

Transportation  accidents  have  always  occurred  and  prob- 
ably always  will  occur.  In  the  early  days  of  the  railway 
such  papers  as  Harper’s  Weekly  ran  weekly  illustrated 
accounts  of  railway  accidents.  If  it  was  the  intention  to 
induce  the  people  not  to  patronize  the  train  service  it 
utterly  failed.  To  prevent  shipping  accidents  the  Govern- 
ment has  spent  millions  in  lighthouses  and  water-front 
protection.  Great  quantities  of  money  have  been  spent  to 
make  safe  river  transportation.  Elaborate  national  and 
international  codes  of  rules  for  navigation  have  been 
adopted.  Laws  to  regulate  railways  have  been  passed.  The 
newest  form  of  transportation,  aviation,  has  already  been 
a subject  for  the  law  makers’  wisdom. 

Of  all  classes  of  accidents,  whatever,  as  reported  by  life 
and  accident  insurance  companies,  that  coming  under  the 
heading  “Automobile”  is  by  far  the  largest.  The  Insur- 
ance Press  stated  that  during  the  year  1920  the  automobile 
caused  12,000  fatalities  and  1,500,000  non-fatal  injuries. 
The  1921  statistics  show  approximately  the  same  results.1 

1 ‘ 1 Facts  and  figures  of  the  Automobile  Industry,  ’ ’ 1922,  published 
by  the  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  gives  the  fol- 

351 


352  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 


Since  it  is  quite  likely  that  many  accidents  never  get  into 
the  enumeration  it  may  be  assumed  without  fear  of  suc- 
cessful contradiction  that  about  one  car  out  of  every  seven 
has  an  accident  causing  injury  to  human  beings  each  year. 
The  number  of  accidents  in  which  no  human  injury 
results  must  be  fully  as  many  more. 

With  ten  million  automobiles  in  every  conceivable  state 
of  repair,  with  ten  million  drivers  with  every  imaginable 
diversity  of  expertness,  with  many  millions  of  unexpected 
conditions  constantly  turning  up  it  would  be,  indeed,  very 
strange  if  no  accidents  occurred. 

Classification  of  and  remedies  for  accidents  can  only  be 
made  in  a most  general  manner.  In  some  of  what  follows 
the  mere  calling  attention  to  the  nature  of  the  accident 
will  suggest  the  remedy;  in  others  precautions  will  be 
mentioned. 

The  Driver. — No  matter  how  careful  a driver  may  be 
there  will  be  accidents,  but  the  greatest  number  occur 
with  drivers  who  may  be  classified  as:  (1)  Mentally  or 
physically  unfit,  (2)  Ignorant,  (3)  Indifferent,  (4)  Reck- 
less by  nature. 

The  unfitness  may  be  caused  by  sickness,  acute  or 


lowing'  table  under  the  heading  “Batio  of  Accidents  to  Traffic 

Declines  : 


Year 

Number  of 
Auto 
Deaths 
per  Car 

Total 
Number 
Auto  * 
Deaths 

Registration 
of  Cars 

Number  of 
Cars 
per  1000 
Population 

Auto 
Deaths 
per  1000 
Population 

1917 

.0019 

9,184 

4,983,340 

48 

.0887 

1918 

.0016 

9,672 

6,146,617 

59 

.0919 

1919 

.0013 

9,827 

7,558,848 

71 

.0936 

1920 

.00123 

11,358 

9,211,295 

87 

.1040 

1921 

.00119 

12,500f 

10,448,632 

99 

.1100 

* Estimated  of  entire  U.  S.  by  National  Workmen’s  Compensation 
Service  Bureau  applying  Census  Bureau  for  registration  area  to  grand 
total. 

t Estimated  from  incomplete  figures.  Later  statistics  of  the  U.  S. 
Census  Bureau  gives  automobile  accidents  in  1921,  9103;  in  1922, 
10,168. 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  353 

chronic,  business  worry,  overwork,  loss  of  sleep,  intoxica- 
tion, the  undevelopment  of  youth  or  the  feebleness  of  old 
age.  Men  of  ordinarily  good  judgment  have  become 
nervous  and  lost  their  heads  in  times  of  crises.  The  good 
driver  must  react  quickly,  his  foot  must  press  the  brake 
pedal,  his  hand  turn  the  steering  wheel  almost  uncon- 
sciously. His  mind  works  reflexively ; the  gas,  the  brake, 
the  steering  are  operated  and  related  to  each  other  so 
perfectly  that  the  car  goes  where  it  should  without  the 
conscious  mind  giving  it  any  particular  attention  except 
in  cases  of  emergency.  With  an  untrained  mind  the  car 
will  frequently  go  where  it  should  not  quite  as  uncon- 
sciously as  in  the  other  case  it  goes  where  it  should.  The 
driver  looks  at  a bump  in  the  road  and  thinks,  “I  must 
not  hit  it,  ’ ’ but  he  watches  it  intently  and  almost  as  surely 
hits  it.  Instances  are  not  uncommon  of  men  who  have 
become  drowsy  while  driving  and  allowed  the  car  to  run 
into  the  ditch.  Mental  and  physical  alertness  have  saved 
many  cars  from  serious  accident.  Ignorance  of  how  to 
operate  a car  may  not  mean  ignorance  in  other  things. 
Too  many  persons  try  to  operate  a car  without  knowing 
anything  whatsoever  about  it  except  to  put  on  the  gas, 
shift  gears,  and  turn  the  steering  wheel  to  the  right  or 
the  left.  They  frequently  lack  decision,  will  power  and 
imagination,  or  they  go  to  the  opposite  extreme  forget 
to  be  courteous  and  hog  the  whole  road.  The  driver  of 
a car  is  like  the  soldier  going  into  battle,  thinks  the  other 
man  may  be  hit  but  not  he.  The  driver,  too  often,  believes 
himself  to  be  immune.  He  knows  there  are  bound  to  be 
accidents  to  some  but  he  continues  to  take  chances.  In- 
experience is  as  bad  as  any  other  kind  of  ignorance  except 
that  the  tyro  imagines  continually  that  he  may  have  an 
accident  and  is  always  on  the  watch.  He  usually,  too, 
drives  slowly  until  self  confidence  leads  him  to  a quicker 
pace.  Many  an  ignorant  driver  may,  as  the  tyro  men- 
tioned, be  absolutely  careful,  but  not  knowing  how  to 
manipulate  his  machine  kills  the  engine  in  the  most  dan- 
gerous places,  or  otherwise  brings  about  an  accident. 


354  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

The  indifferent  or  “don’t  care”  personage  is  one  of 
the  worst  offenders.  He  passes  through  a string  of  cars 
without  paying  any  attention,  taking  it  for  granted  that 
the  other  fellow  will  do  the  looking  out.  He  runs  over 
the  walk  lines  without  giving  thought  to  the  pedestrians 
who  have  as  much  right  there  as  he.  It  is  said  that 
women  are  more  likely  to  be  afflicted  with  indifferency 
than  men.  If  this  be  so,  no  doubt  the  scientist  could 
explain  it  on  the  theory  that  for  ages  women  have  been 
given  first  place  by  the  men,  they  have  seldom  been 
called  upon  to  look  out  for  themselves,  but  have  always 
depended  upon  being  cared  for  especially  in  times  of 
danger,  hence  now  they  unconsciously  expect  all  cars, 
especially  those  with  men  drivers,  to  avoid  them.  The 
indifferent  person  does  not  look  both  ways  before  cross- 
ing a railroad  track.  He  starts  to  walk  across  a street 
without  noticing  whether  or  not  automobiles  are  coming. 
He  pays  no  attention  to  signs  and  danger  signals  along 
the  way.  He  takes  dangers  as  nonchalantly  as  though 
driving  in  the  lonely  desert.  He  knows  that  accidents 
do  happen  and  imagines  that  some  day  or  other  he  will 
“get  his”  but  thinks  that  day  is  always  a long  time  in 
the  future.  When  spoken  to  in  regard  to  his  careless 
driving  he  laughingly  puts  it  off  with,  “Oh,  I am  all  right. 
Nothing  will  happen  to  me.”  But,  all  too  frequently 
something  does  happen. 

The  reckless  by  nature  are  not  so  uncommon  as  one 
might  think.  There  is  more  or  less  recklessness  in  all 
mankind.  Else  why  do  they  enjoy  reading  of  and  seeing 
deeds  of  daring?  An  aeronaut  looping-the-loop  used  to 
draw  hundreds  to  a fair.  When  that  became  common  and 
ceased  to  produce  thrills  the  daring  air  man  leapt  from 
the  plane  descending  by  parachute,  or  passed  from  one 
plane  to  another.  The  papers  will  fill  their  columns  with 
accounts  of  a daring  flight  across  the  ocean,  the  people 
pay  for  and  read  these  papers  because  they  in  a measure 
satisfy  the  natural  reckless  longing  of  mankind.  Wild 
west  stuff  in  the  movies  receives  a large  patronage  when 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  3 55 

everyone  knows  that  the  days  of  uncouth  and  reckless 
cow-boyism  are  gone  forever.  Horse  races  and  automobile 
races  because  of  the  elements  of  contest  and  danger  cater 
to  the  same  wild  propensities.  When  two  race  horses 
come  beside  each  other  they  champ  their  bits  and  throw 
their  heads  in  a wild  endeavor  to  be  off.  The  human 
animal,  too,  when  another  machine  tries  to  pass  him,  has 
the  same  instinctive  inclination  to  keep  it  from  doing  so. 

Of  course  there  are  all  degrees  of  recklessness  and  it 
certainly  is  not  to  be  condoned  on  the  theory  that  it  is 
an  inherited  tendency.  Might  as  well  say  that  civilized 
man  should  continue  the  barbarous  customs  of  head-hunt- 
ing and  cannibalism.  The  time  has  arrived  when  all  such 
barbarian  actions  should  absolutely  cease.  The  slogan, 
“Wreckless,  not  Reckless,”  should  govern.  Perhaps  two- 
thirds  of  the  automobile  accidents  can  be  charged  either 
to  carelessness  or  recklessness  on  the  part  of  drivers.  Can 
these  propensities  be  done  away  with?  Only  by  creating 
a sentiment  in  favor  of  careful  and  safe  driving.  DRIVE 
CAREFULLY  should  not  only  be  posted  on  the  wind 
shield  of  every  automobile  but  in  the  mind  and  conscious- 
ness of  every  driver. 

Driving  and  Operating. — Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  reckless  driving.  Speeding  might  be  looked  upon 
at  times  as  reckless,  at  other  times  not,  although  it  at 
all  times  is  more  or  less  dangerous,  for  there  is  always  a 
chance  that  some  part  of  the  mechanism  might  suddenly 
go  wrong,  that  another  machine  may  come  in  from  a side 
road,  or  that  there  may  be  an  unseen  bad  place  in  the 
road.  Reckless  and  fast  driving  together  are  almost  sure, 
sooner  or  later,  to  lead  to  accident  and  perhaps  loss  of 
life.  The  Maryland  State  Road  Commission  has  its  patrol- 
men collect  and  report  accident  data.  During  the  three 
months  of  May,  June  and  July  of  1921,  their  records 
show  that  90  per  cent  of  the  accidents  are  due  to  speeding. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  automobiles  ought  to  be 
installed  with  governors  which  will  limit  the  vehicle-speed 
to  twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  per  hour.  This  is  a very 


356  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

doubtful  expedient  for  very  many  accidents  occur  when 
vehicles  are  traveling  at  a very  much  less  speed.  Even 
trucks  with  governors  that  limit  them  to  12  or  15 
miles  per  hour  frequently  have  accidental  collisions.  Laws 
limiting  speeds  to  8,  12,  or  15  miles  through  villages  while 
possibly  wholesome  will  not  wholly  prevent  accidents. 
In  congested  cities  speeds  as  high  as  25  miles  per  hour 
are  at  times  not  only  allowable  but  highly  desirable  to 
relieve  the  congestion.  The  driver  in  such  instances  must 
have  his  wits  about  him  and  drive  with  utmost  care. 

The  sudden  rounding  of  a sharp  corner  has  caused  many 
a car  to  turn  turtle ; likewise  suddenly  turning  a car  from 
a rutted  track  will  sometimes  cause  the  driver  to  lose 
control  and  the  car  to  go  into  the  ditch.  If  there  is  snow, 
ice,  loose  earth  or  mud  on  the  roadway  or  pavement, 
skidding,  which  may  result  in  a broken  wheel  or  more 
disastrously,  is  quite  likely  to  take  place.  The  remedy, 
of  course,  is  to  slow  up  before  turning. 

Passing  or  attempting  to  pass  a car  on  the  wrong  side, 
and  driving  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  street  are  sources 
of  danger.  So,  also,  is  every  infraction  of  road  customs 
and  rules  such  as  driving  rapidly  over  crossings  and  those 
portions  of  the  street  where  the  public  have  a right  to 
walk,  failure  to  slow  down  at  railway  crossings,  not 
watching  the  car  ahead  for  hand  signals,  or  not  giving 
hand  signals  when  turning  or  stopping  the  car.  How 
many  drivers  run  on  past  a street  car  -when  it  is  stopped 
for  taking  on  or  discharging  passengers.  How  many 
drivers  watch  the  sidewalks,  the  store  fronts,  or  turn 
around  to  talk  to  the  passengers  on  the  rear  seat  instead 
of  watching  the  street  with  its  many  passing  vehicles 
and  pedestrians. 

Horns. — Every  car  is  supposed  to  be  equipped  with  a 
good  horn  and  it  should  be  used  with  caution  when  neces- 
sary but  never  when  unnecessary  or  so  often  as  to  become 
a nuisance.  Horns  should  be  regulated  by  law  in  just 
the  same  manner  as  lights.  The  standard  horn  is  one 
which  honks,  not  one  which  whistles  or  screeches.  The 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  357 

siren  is  almost,  universally  the  property  of  fire-fighting 
motors  and  many  cities  reserve  its  use  to  the  fire  depart- 
ments, making  it  a misdemeanor  for  any  one  else  to  use 
it.  Screeching  and  whistling  horns  should  be  relegated 
to  the  scrap  pile.  The  honking  horns  are  now  so  well 
recognized  that  every  one  knows  what  they  mean,  and 
if  they  are  used  properly  and  not  too  close  to  crossings 
will  not  frighten  the  pedestrian.  If  honked  too  close  a 
pedestrian  may  become  excited  and  rush  back  right  in 
front  of  the  car.  Boys,  and  bicycles  should  not  be  allowed 
to  have  honking  horns,  they  should  belong  exclusively  to 
the  automobile. 

Stopping  Cars  on  Grades,  Streets,  etc. — The  stopping 
of  machines  on  grades  without  thoroughly  braking  them 
or  blocking  the  wheels,  or  leaving  them  without  wheels 
blocked  on  ferries  may  be  and  has  been  productive  of 
accidents.  September  3,  1922,  the  papers  reported  that 
a taxi  which  had  been  left  on  the  brink  at  Niagara  Falls 
and  whose  brakes  failed  to  hold,  had  carried  a woman  pas- 
senger over  the  cliff  to  her  death. 

Trucks,  delivery  wagons,  ice-wagons,  etc.,  frequently 
stop  back  of  the  line  of  parked  automobiles  in  the  street 
restricting  the  way  and  causing  all  passing  vehicles  to  go 
over  to  the  wrong  side  of  the  street  thus  congesting  traffic 
and  furnishing  a source  of  danger.  Deliveries  should,  if 
possible,  be  made  at  the  alley  or  rear  entrance.  If  that 
is  impossible  space  might  be  reserved  at  each  end  of  the 
block  for  this  purpose.  There  must  also  be  space  reserved 
at  the  ends  of  blocks  for  the  entry  and  discharge  of  street 
car  and  bus  passengers.  Likewise  the  space  about  a fire 
hydrant  should  be  kept  absolutely  clear. 

Backing. — Mr.  L.  A.  Held,  adjuster  for  the  American 
Railway  Express  Company,  writing  in  the  Express  Mes- 
senger of  July,  1922,  says: 

In  those  claims  presented  for  damage  arising  out  of  accidents 
caused  by  our  vehicles  backing,  settlement  in  most  every  case  is 
necessary  as  there  is  not  the  slightest  chance  of  successfully  de- 
fending an  action  for  damages  resulting  from  such  an  accident. 


358  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 


The  handling  of  an  automobile  while  in  reverse  calls  for  the 
greatest  care  and  continual  vigilance.  It  is  not  sufficient  to 
merely  look  once  before  starting  to  back.  On  the  contrary,  the 
operator  should  continually  watch  the  rear  of  his  truck  and  take 
almost  extraordinary  precautions  to  see  that  no  harm  befalls 
any  person  or  property. 

Where  there  is  no  one  to  guide  him,  it  becomes  quite  difficult 
to  avoid  collisions,  especially  in  congested  thoroughfares,  for 
truth  to  tell,  there  appears  to  be  an  absolute  lack  of  road  courtesy 
on  the  jmrt  of  most  automobile  drivers.  When  more  than  one 
man  is  assigned  to  a vehicle,  the  helper  should  take  the  position 
on  the  ground  where  he  has  an  unobstructed  view  of  traffic  and 
pedestrians  approaching  from  all  directions.  This  by  no  means 
is  always  done.  It  can  be  accounted  for  by  no  other  reason  than 
neglect  and  laziness. 

What  Mr.  Held  says  regarding  express  trucks  applies 
with  equal  force  to  all  other  motor  cars. 

Other  Forms  of  Carelessness. — Mr.  Held  also  speaks  of 
claims  presented  because  drivers  cut  in  ahead  of  street 
cars  and  were  caught,  demolishing  the  truck  and  injuring 
the  street  car  and  some  of  its  passengers.  Also,  he  con- 
tinues, “there  are  a fair  proportion  of  accidents  from 
vehicles  being  turned  to  and  from  the  car  tracks.  The 
driver  should  always  determine  whether  the  way  is  clear 
before  diverting  the  course  of  his  vehicle.” 

There  are  many  other  forms  of  careless  or  reckless 
driving  that  might  be  mentioned,  such  as,  driving  too 
close  in  heavy  traffic,  cutting  in  on  traffic — “stealing  the 
road,”  turning  in  the  middle  of  a city  block,  attempting 
to  turn  in  too  small  a space,  failure  to  go  slowly  near  a 
school  house  or  children’s  play  ground,  failure  to  be  on 
the  lookout  for  playing  children  elsewhere,  failure  to  try 
to  anticipate  what  the  other  fellow  is  going  to  do. 

The  Car. — The  car  itself  may  be  the  cause  of  accidents. 
Faulty  design  may  result  in  the  breaking  of  essential 
parts  when  the  car  is  going  at  a rapid  gait.  It  must  be 
said  to  the  credit  of  modern  design  and  manufacture  that 
while  many  parts  break,  few  of  those  that  may  cause 
the  car  to  turn  turtle  or  otherwise  injure  the  passengers 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  359 

are  found  in  the  number.  It  is  remarkable  that  they  are 
so  few. 

Skidding. — Failure  to  use  wheel  anti-skid  chains  on  a 
slippery  road  or  pavement  is  a fertile  source  of  danger. 
Skidding  may  break  a wheel  or  cause  a collision  with 
another  ear,  or  the  car  itself  may  slide  off  an  embankment 
into  the  ditch.  Sometimes,  too,  cars  skid  on  loose  gravel, 
or  clods  of  earth,  or  even  on  slightly  rough  roads  where 
a sufficient  contact  between  wheel  and  ground  is  not 
obtained  for  a good  grip. 

The  Brake. — Perhaps  the  most  serious  danger  in  the 
car  mechanism  is  the  brake.  Mr.  Harold  F.  Blanchard 
writing  in  Motor  (New  York),  argues  that  more  than  half, 
probably  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  all  motor  accidents  may 
be  eliminated  by  making  the  stopping  ability  of  motor 
vehicles  a maximum  instead  of  25  to  50  per  cent,  as  is 
now  the  rule.  He  would  have  brakes  put  on  all  four 
wheels  and  claims  thereby  the  braking  power  of  the 
machine  can  be  more  than  doubled.  He  further  maintains 
that  the  braking  power  of  the  ordinary  car  is  extremely 
low,  due,  sometimes  to  the  design  of  the  braking  system 
and  sometimes  to  the  failure  of  the  owner  to  adjust 
the  brakes  properly.  He  states  that  a car  equipped  with 
an  efficiently  constructed  system  of  brakes  on  four  wheels 
may  be  stopped  from  a speed  of  30  miles  per  hour  in 
36  feet,  whereas  an  average  car  in  the  hands  of  the  aver- 
age motorist  will  require  from  100  to  150  feet.  He  thinks 
the  brake  should  be  powerful  enough  to  lock  the  wheel 
through  which  it  acts.  This  is  not  possible  on  many  cars, 
especially  trucks,  and  it  is  the  reason,  he  says,  why  there 
are  so  many  truck  accidents  in  spite  of  their  low  speed. 
He  argues  that  since  very  few  crises  arise  so  abruptly 
that  the  accident  takes  place  before  there  has  been  some 
opportunity  to  slow  down,  and  that  a majority  of  accidents 
occur  during  the  latter  part  of  the  stopping  period, 
therefore,  the  substitution  of  100  per  cent  braking  power 
on  four  wheels  instead  of  the  present  25  per  cent,  the 
decelerating  period  will  be  reduced  to  one-half  or  one- 


360  Highway  Accidents  and  tlieir  Mitigation 

quarter  its  former  length,  and  consequently  the  number 
of  “accidents  would  be  reduced  to  a mere  shadow  of 
their  present  magnitude.” 

Some  automotive  engineers  think  it  best  not  to  lock  the 
wheels  completely  in  braking.  That  the  best  plan  is  to 
apply  the  pressure  only  until  incipient  locking  has  been 
reached  but  the  wheels  are  still  rolling.  The  driver  has 
little  control  of  a skidding  car,  and  certainly  would  have 
none  whatever  with  all  four  wheels  locked.  While  the 
wheels  are  still  moving  there  is  a chance  to  guide  the  car 
so  as  to  avoid  an  obstruction  even  though  it  can  not  be 
stopped  in  time.  Steering  and  braking  should  go  together. 

On  some  of  the  steep  mountain  roads,  which,  be- 
cause of  their  length  and  relative  grade  with  the  bot- 
tom of  the  canyon,  appear  to  be  nearly  level,  it  is 
impossible  to  hold  the  car  with  the  brake  alone.  It  is 
customary  in  such  cases  to  assist  the  brake  with  the 
engine ; unless  the  driver  is  very  expert  at  changing  gears 
the  engine  should  be  put  in  low,  or  intermediate,  depend- 
ing on  the  steepness,  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  then  with 
brakes  and  clutch  the  car  may  be  controlled  and  kept  to  a 
safe  speed. 

The  brakes  being  under  the  car  are  more  or  less  difficult 
to  get  at,  they  form  no  part  of  the  ornamental  finish,  and 
as  a consequence  usually  are  neglected  until  they  become 
so  very  bad  that  they  scarcely  brake  the  car  at  all.  They 
receive  the  mud  and  water  from  the  roadway.  The  joints 
and  pivots  become  rusted  so  that  even  with  good  bands 
they  are  only  a quarter  to  a half  efficient.  It  will  pay 
better  than  life  insurance  to  keep  the  brakes  in  first  class 
condition. 

Flexibility. — While  the  brakes  are  most  useful  in  the 
prevention  of  accidents,  it  frequently  happens  that  a quick 
pick-up  is  also  important.  In  crossing  the  street  ahead 
of  a car  coming  at  right  angles,  for  instance,  there  may  be 
no  time  to  stop,  no  chance  to  turn,  the  only  thing  that 
can  be  done  is  to  “give  her  gas”  and  shoot  ahead  at  full 
speed.  A flexible  engine  with  ability  to  change  quickly 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  361 

from  fast  to  slow  and  from  slow  to  fast  velocities  will 
in  the  hands  of  an  expert  driver  prevent  many  an  ac- 
cident. 

Steering1  and  Turning  Ability. — It  has  been  mentioned 
several  times  that  steering  is  a matter  of  importance  in 
the  prevention  of  accidents.  Designing  engineers  should, 
therefore,  take  that  into  account.  It  was  formerly  thought 
that  turning  ability  is  a function  of  the  length  of  wheel 
base,  but  there  are  other  things  to  be  taken  into  account 
and  some  late  designs  with  reasonably  long  wheel  bases 
are  able  to  turn  in  half  the  radius  that  was  required  for 
some  of  the  older  designs  with  shorter  wheel  bases. 

Lights. — The  lights  whether  on  your  car  or  another  car 
are  often  serious  sources  of  danger.  If  there  is  not  enough 
illumination  one  is  always  liable  to  get  off  the  roadway. 
If  there  is  a large  amount  of  illumination  improperly  con- 
trolled the  glare  is  quite  as  dangerous  to  approaching 
vehicles.  State  regulations  usually  require  two  white 
lights  ahead  and  one  red  light  behind.  The  two-light 
regulation  is  wise.  When  one  approaches  a single  lighted 
machine  he  can  not  tell  which  of  the  two  lights  is  out, 
or  whether  or  not  it  is  a motorcycle.  Many  accidents 
have  been  caused  on  account  of  this  fact  by  not  giving 
sufficient  clearance  to  pass  the  approaching  vehicle.  When 
meeting  a one  lighted  machine  the  driver  should  always 
slow  down  and  give  as  much  clearance  as  the  road  will 
allow.  Safety  first.  The  red  light  behind  of  course  saves 
many  a rear  end  collision.  As  to  whether  it  should  be 
red  or  white  is  questionable. 

Glaring  lights  became  such  a menace  to  safety  that  most 
of  the  states  have  enacted  laws  requiring  all  lenses  used 
to  comply  with  certain  requirements,  and  providing  that 
they  be  approved  after  tests  by  some  competent  authority. 
By  doing  away  with  plain  lenses  and  properly  corrugating 
the  glass,  lenses  have  now  been  produced  which  go  far 
toward  removing  the  glare.  With  proper  lenses  and  re- 
flectors the  lights  may  be  so  regulated  that  the  beam  of 
light  will  illuminate  the  roadway  almost  completely  across 


362  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

its  width  and  from  200  to  300  feet  ahead  of  the  vehicle 
and  at  no  place  go  higher  than  56  inches  above  the 
ground.  But  even  with  the  best  lenses  and  best  adjust- 
ments it  is  impossible  to  see  beyond  an  extremely  bright 
light  so  in  passing  such  a light  there  is  always  the  chance 
of  running  into  an  unlighted  parked  car,  or  other  obstruc- 
tion, or  a ditch  at  the  side  of  the  road.  In  passing  such 
a light  the  eyes  should  be  kept  on  the  road  and  shielded, 
if  possible,  from  the  glare  of  the  other  machine.  The 
precaution  of  driving  slowly  under  such  circumstances 
goes  without  saying. 

Unlighted  Vehicles. — Unlighted,  horse-drawn  vehicles, 
bicycles,  and  animals  driven  or  walking  in  the  street  fre- 
quently give  the  automobile  driver  palpitation  of  the 
heart.  Even  if  the  law  does  not  require  it  horse-drawn 
vehicles  ought  to  bear  lights  or  reflectors  which  would 
give  a warning  to  the  coming  automobilist.  Bright  reflect- 
ing surfaces  will  flash  back  the  rays  of  light  from  the  auto- 
mobile lamps  and  are  much  better  than  no  lights  at  all. 
A California  freighter  who  had  many  pack  mules  going 
along  the  automobile  highway  to  and  from  the  mountains 
continually  kept  such  reflectors  on  both  the  head  straps 
and  cruppers  of  his  animals  with  the  result  that  very 
many  less  were  struck  by  automobiles  than  before  the 
reflectors  were  used.  It  is  only  by  the  reflections  from 
lenses  and  bright  parts  of  automobiles  parked  without 
lights,  contrary  to  law,  along  the  streets  that  saves  them 
from  being  run  into  and  smashed,  to  sav  nothing  of  per- 
sonal injuries  and  the  probable  loss  of  lives. 

Speedometer. — Every  automobile  should  be  equipped 
with  a good  speedometer.  Speed  limits  are  known  to  most 
drivers  and  if  constantly  stared  in  the  face  by  good  clear 
speedometer  numbers  they  are  not  so  likely  to  exceed  them 
as  if  they  depended  entirely  upon  a sense  of  velocity, 
which  is  merely  relative  at  the  best.  A motorist  is  driving 
along  a country  highway  at  a speed  of  25  miles  an  hour, 
say,  when  he  comes  to  a village  with  a sign  out,  “Speed 
Limit,  15  miles.”  He  slacks  to  that  speed  by  speedometer 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  363 

but  feels  he  is  only  traveling  5 or  10  miles  an  hour.  Rail- 
road companies  found  it  advantageous  to  equip  their  loco- 
motives with  self-registering  speedometers  in  order  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  accidents  due  to  speeding.  The  auto- 
mobilist  with  a speedometer  before  him  has  no  excuse,  at 
least,  for  speeding. 

Bad  Roads  Cause  Accidents. — It  is  not  always  the  fault 
of  the  driver  or  the  vehicle  that  there  is  an  accident.  The 
roads  may  be  at  fault,  and  while  careful  driving  may 
decrease  the  number  it  can  not  eliminate  all. 

Slipperiness  is  hard  to  combat.  This  will  vary  of  course 
with  the  types  of  road,  with  grades,  and  with  height  of 
crowns.  But  even  a pavement,  which  in  dry  weather  is 
perfectly  safe,  will,  when  it  becomes  moist,  especially  if 
there  is  a small  amount  of  dust  or  clay  on  it,  be  extremely 
slippery.  Earth  roads  when  they  are  wet  on  top  and 
hard  below  are  very  treacherous.  All  types  become  slip- 
pery in  the  winter  when  there  is  ice  and  snow.  A thorough 
flushing  of  pavements,  which  will  remove  surplus  dust  and 
clay,  preferably  done  at  night,  is  a good  remedy  for 
slipperiness.  The  use  of  sand  or  cinders  on  turns  is  some- 
times resorted  to  where  absolute  cleanliness  can  not  be 
obtained  by  flushing.  Extra  precautions  by  the  drivers 
over  the  slippery  roads  and  streets  is  always  a good 
thing.  The  investigations  of  the  Maryland  Highway 
Commission  indicate  that  about  20  per  cent  of  all  the 
accidents  can  be  attributed  to  wet  and  slippery  roads. 

In  the  construction  of  roads  high  crowns  should  be 
avoided.  On  earth  roads  the  crowns  should  never  exceed 
one  inch  per  foot  and  if  the  road  is  one  that  is  much  used 
and  carefully  maintained  so  that  it  is  hard,  should  be 
about  one-half  inch  per  foot.  A crown  of  one  inch  to 
the  foot  is  equivalent  to  an  81/3  per  cent  grade  down  which 
vehicles  will  easily  run  and  oft  which  they  will  slide  in 
slippery  wmather.  Vehicles  seek  the  center  of  the  road 
when  the  crown  is  high  both  for  comfort  and  safety  but 
two  passing  vehicles  can  not  be  there  at  the  same  time. 
On  hard  pavements  a quarter  of  an  inch  per  foot  will 


364  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

furnish  ample  drainage,  and  that  is  all  the  crown  is  for 
anyway. 

Embankments  and  Guard  Rails. — Too  many  roadways 
are  built  on  narrow  embankments  and  often  there  are  no 
guard  rails.  The  embankment  should  always  be  wide 
enough  to  accommodate  the  traffic  with  an  ample  factor 
of  safety.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  vehicles  to  slide  off 
embankments  with  fatal  results.  The  writer  has  be- 
fore him  a recent  newspaper  clipping  of  one  such  case 
where  a bus  slipped  off  the  roadway  and  toppled  into 
the  ditch  killing  one  man  and  injuring  several  others; 
the  busman  had  no  indemnity  insurance.  Chains  on  the 
wheels  of  the  bus  or  heavy  guard  rails  might  have  pre- 
vented the  accident. 

The  danger  from  sharp  turns  in  roads  is  so  well  recog- 
nized that  state  systems  are  now  specifying  a minimum 
radius  of  200  feet  and  when  practicable  laying  curves 
out  very  much  flatter.  The  pavement  is  also  being 
widened  at  the  turns  so  as  to  allow  the  same  turning 
radius  on  the  inner  as  on  the  outer  track  in  order  that 
the  temptation  for  vehicles  to  cross  over  to  the  other 
track  may  be  lessened. 

Superelevation.- — The  superelevation  of  the  outer  side 
of  a curved  roadway  can  not  at  one  and  the  same  time 
be  made  suitable  for  all  rates  of  speed.  Works  on 
mechanics  give  the  formula  for  the  elevations  of  the  outer 
edge  as 


av2 


where  e = the  elevation  in  feet; 

a = the  width  of  road  in  feet; 
g = acceleration  of  gravity  in  ft.  per  sec.  per  sec.; 
v = velocity  in  ft.  per  sec.; 

R = radius  in  feet. 

Or  if  the  velocity,  V,  is  given  in  miles  per  hour  and  the 
elevation,  E,  in  inches  this  reduces  to 

„_121  aV2  0.807aF2 
1501? 


R 


Underwood  and  Underwood 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  365 

The  country  pavements  are  usually  superelevated  for  12 
miles  per  hour.  Even  this  with  the  minimum  radius  gives  a 
surface  so  tipped  that  it  is  difficult  for  horse-drawn 


of  vehicles  may  pass  around  on  the  same  curvature  as  the  outer 
row. 

wagons  to  remain  on  it  unless  the  horses  trot  around  the 
curve.  Substituting  for  a velocity  of  12  miles  per  hour, 
a width  of  20  feet,  and  a radius  of  200  feet  there  results 

£'  = 11.6  inches. 

The  following  table  gives  the  necessary  elevation  in  inches 
that  there  shall  be  no  side  thrust  at  various  speeds,  for 
a road  one  foot  wide.  To  get  the  elevation  for  any  width 
multiply  by  the  width. 


Table  op  Superelevation  in  Inches  per  Foot  of  Width 


Radius 

Speed  in  Miles  per  Hour 

Feet 

10 

12 

15 

20 

30 

40 

Inch 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

100 

0.81 

1.16 

1.82 

3.23 

7.26 

12.91 

200 

.40 

.58 

.91 

1.61 

3.63 

6.46 

300 

.27 

.38 

.61 

1.08 

2.45 

4.30 

400 

.20 

.29 

.45 

.81 

1.81 

3.23 

500 

.16 

.23 

.36 

.64 

1.45 

2.58 

366  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 


Unless  the  road  is  intended  for  a speedway,  12  miles 
per  hour  would  he  about  the  right  speed  to  use.  In 
rounding  a curve  of  radius  200  feet  at  a speed  of  30  miles 
per  hour,  superelevated  as  shown  in  the  table  for  12  miles 
per  hour  the  coefficient  of  friction  would  have  to  be  about 
one-fourth  to  prevent  skidding.  In  dry  weather  this  would 
practically  always  be  exceeded.  A committee  of  the 
National  Highway  Traffic  Association,  1922,  recommends 
“that  on  all  curves  of  more  than  three  degrees  the  pave- 
ment and  inner-half  of  the  earth  shoulder  should  be  banked. 
This  superelevation  should  vary  from  0 for  a 3-degree 
curve  to  1 inch  per  foot  of  width  for  curves  of  20  degrees  or 
sharper.” 

Clear  Vision. — Clear  vision  is  another  thing  that  should 
be  insisted  upon  as  a means  for  safety.  Weeds,  brush 
and  trees  are  all  too  frequently  allowed  to  obscure  the 
sight.  With  ordinary  brakes  on  smooth  roads  from  100 
to  150  feet  is  needed  to  stop  a car  moving  at  30  miles  per 
hour.  With  first-class  brakes  this  might  be  decreased, 
but  since  it  usually  takes  a driver  a short  period  to  react 
from  the  time  a car  heaves  in  sight  or  he  sees  a break  in  the 
pavement  or  some  other  obstruction,  there  should  be 
allowed  150  feet  to  stop  if  the  roads  are  smooth  and  hard. 
In  order  that  there  might  be  a good  factor  of  safety  it  is 
desirable  to  get  at  least  250  feet  clear  vision.  This  will 
require  for  a 200-ft.  radius  that  the  brush,  trees  and  so 
on  should  be  cut  back  about  27  feet  from  the  traveled 
way.  As  the  radius  becomes  larger  the  distance  necessary 
to  clear  back  becomes  less:  300-ft.  radius,  clearance,  12 
ft.. ; 400-ft.  radius,  7 ft. ; 500-ft.  radius,  4 ft.  In  case  the 
curve  is  in  a cut  the  bank  on  the  inside  at  the  height  of 
the  eye  should  be  excavated  far  enough  back  to  give  the 
necessary  clear  vision. 

At  the  corners  of  city  streets  it  will,  of  course,  be 
impossible  to  get  a 200-ft.  radius.  A 12-  or  14-ft.  radius 
may  usually  be  obtained.  The  rule  to  turn  close  to  the 
curb  may  then  be  accomplished  with  the  ordinary  auto- 
mobile providing  it  is  not  going  very  fast.  With  a square 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  367 


angle  or  a short  2-or  3-ft.  radius  as  it  was  formerly  the 
custom  to  put  in,  and  still  is  in  places,  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  keep  from  going  at  least  to  the  middle  of 
the  street  thus  endangering  motors  on  the  other  side. 
The  cut  shows  the  lines  of  travel. 


Curves. — Notwithstanding  curves  are  dangerous  the 
records  of  the  Maryland  State  Commission,  heretofore 
referred  to,  show  that  the  largest  number  of  accidents 
occur  at  places  which  always  have  been  considered  safe, 
while  the  sections  that  have  been  regarded  as  very  danger- 
ous are  relatively  free  from  accidents.  On  the  long 
straight  stretches,  with  good  vision  and  free  from  any 
elements  that  might  be  considered  dangerous,  have  oc- 
curred the  greatest  number  of  accidents.  The  commission 
accounts  for  this  on  the  theory  “that  even  the  less  careful 
motorists  drive  cautiously  in  the  presence  of  recognized 
dangers,  such  as  steep  grades,  sharp  curves,  grade  cross- 
ings, etc.,  while  the  absence  of  such  dangerous  features 
gives  the  driver  a sense  of  security  which  prompts  him 
to  take  a chance  and  yield  to  the  well  nigh  universal 
passion  for  speed.”  2 

Bridges  and  Culverts. — Many  road  accidents  can  be 
attributed  to  poor  and  poorly  located  bridges  and  cul- 

2 Harry  D.  Williar,  Jr.,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer,  in  Public  Roads, 
September,  1921. 


368  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

verts.  Wooden  bridges  and  culverts  soon  decay  and  be- 
come so  weak  that  a heavy  vehicle  will  break  them  down. 
Often  culverts  of  the  best  type  are  not  cared  for  as  they 
should  be  or  there  is  no  abutment  protection  with  the 
result  that  a freshet  will  wash  under  and  about  them  so 
that  they  are  real  sources  of  danger.  Frequently  the 
damage  is  not  visible  to  the  driver  and  the  first  warning 
is  when  his  vehicle  goes  down. 

In  order  to  shorten  them  and  thus  lessen  the  cost, 
bridges  are  often  built  straight  across  the  stream  or  draw, 
but  at  a skew  to  the  roadway,  thus  requiring  a sudden  turn 
to  get  on  to  them.  Very  frequently,  too,  bridges  and 
culverts  are  built  too  narrow  with  no  guard  rails  or 
markers  leading  up  to  them.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  thorough  bridging  constitutes  a considerable  portion 
of  the  expense  of  road  construction,  the  best  plan  is  to 
put  in  substantial  structures,  wide  as  the  traveled  way, 
and  straight  with  it,  thus  lessening  a grave  source  of 
danger. 

Railway  Crossing  Accidents. — The  great  number  of 
fatalities  at  railway  crossings  has  for  years  been  a theme 
for  much  talk,  and  many  suggestions  for  the  elimination  of 
grade  crossings  have  been  made.  The  public  seems  to  think 
that  the  railways  are  the  ones  that  oppose  the  elimination. 
As  a matter  of  fact  they  would  welcome  elimination  if  it 
could  be  done  at  reasonable  cost.  In  1919  there  were 
eliminated  399  crossings  “but  there  are  still  251,939  cross- 
ings on  Class  1 Railroads  (revenue  of  over  $1,000,000 
annually)  alone  and  the  conservatively  estimated  sum 
which  would  be  required  to  eliminate  all  remaining  cross- 
ings in  the  entire  United  States  is  placed  as  high  as  $12,- 
500,000,000,  which  cannot  be  immediately  available.3  It  is 
estimated  that  more  than  2000  persons  are  killed  annually 
in  the  United  States  at  these  crossings.  The  Pennsylvania 
R.R.  Bulletin,  February,  1914,  states  that  430  crossings 

8 Bulletin  issued  by  the  American  Railway  Association  as  a part  of 
the  “Cross  Crossings  Cautiously’’  campaign,  June  to  September, 
inclusive,  1922. 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  369 

were  eliminated  on  that  road  from  1904  to  1913  at  a total 
cost  of  $27,742,433 — an  average  of  $64,518  per  crossing. 
In  Illinois  the  average  cost  of  eliminating  ten  crossings  was 
$58,000.  In  California  the  average  cost  is  estimated  at 
$30,000 ; in  Colorado,  $40,000 ; in  New  York,  $48,000 ; and 
in  Wisconsin,  $25,000,  according  to  the  bulletin  mentioned. 
Even  at  pre-war  prices  the  average  cost  for  the  whole 
United  States  was  put  at  $40,000.  Since  there  are  in  the 
whole  country  something  over  300,000  crossings  that  will 
account  for  the  $12,000,000,000  necessary. 

The  public  must  remember  that  the  elimination  of 
crossings  even  if  the  railways  could  finance  such  a vast 
operation  would  eventually  be  charged  up  to  and  paid 
for  by  the  public.  While  the  railroads  have  a direct  in- 
terest in  checking  crossing  accidents,  yet  in  the  first  and 
last  analysis  the  public  itself  suffers  the  pain,  the  mutila- 
tion, and  the  passing  to  the  Great  Beyond,  in  addition 
to  bearing  the  financial  burden.4 

F.  T.  Darrow,  Asst.  Chief.  Engr.,  C.  B.  & Q.  R.R.,  makes 
this  calculation 5 for  the  State  of  Nebraska. 


Population  1,350,000 

Miles  of  railway  track 6,516 

Number  of  grade  crossings 11,300 

Cost  of  entire  removal  $452,000,000 

Cost  per  mile  of  track  70,000 

Cost  per  person 330 


Nearly  doubling  the  cost  value  of  the  railroads,  at  a price 
11  times  as  much  as  railroad  service  now  cost  per  annum 
per  person. 

But  suppose  the  cost  were  put  upon  the  public  at  the 
beginning,  the  state  would  have  to  finance  the  $452,000,000, 
and  if  it  were  placed  as  a charge  against  the  80,000  miles 
of  rural  highway  and  the  45,000  miles  of  city  and  village 
streets,  it  would  amount  to  $3600  per  mile.  Similar  cal- 
culations could  be  made  for  each  of  the  States. 

4 “Cross  Crossings  Cautiously”  Bulletin. 

6 Nebraska  Blue  Print,  May,  1920.  Published  by  the  Engineering 
Society  of  the  University  of  Nebraska. 


370  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

From  the  above  it  does  not  appear  probable  that  either 
the  railroads  or  the  state  or  both  together,  can  afford 
to  pay  for  the  elimination  of  all  grade  crossings  right 
away.  It  is  probable  that  they  will  be  gradually  done 
away  with,  although  Mr.  Darrow  states  that  at  present 
two  or  three  crossings  are  added  to  the  list  for  each  one 
subtracted.  The  railroads  realize  that  it  is  incumbent 
on  them  to  make  the  crossings  as  safe  as  possible  but 
that  they  must  look  to  the  education  of  the  public  as  a 
means  of  immediately  reducing  fatalities.  Hence  the 
“Cross  Crossings  Cautiously”  campaign  in  1922.  The 
bulletin  states  that  the  “Safety  First”  organized  effort 
had  reduced  the  number  of  deaths  among  railway  em- 
ployees from  4354  in  1907  to  2578  in  1920.  A thing  well 
worth  while  and  a similar  campaign  against  carelessly 
crossing  crossings  may  change,  at  least,  the  rate  of  ac- 
celeration of  crossing  accidents,  which  have  increased  in 
the  past  thirty  years  345  per  cent  in  fatal  and  652  per 
cent  in  injury  cases,  while  the  country’s  population  has 
increased  in  the  same  time  only  68  per  cent. 

The  Automobile  and  Crossing-  Accidents. — To  the  auto- 
mobile is  attributed  much  of  the  increase.  And  to  care- 
less, indifferent  and  reckless  driving  the  greater  per  cent 
of  it.  The  railways  have  made  numerous  counts  which 
show  the  carelessness  of  the  people  at  railway  crossings. 
Those  given  below  are  typical  of  them  all. 

In  December,  1913,  St.  Louis: 

Per  Cent 


Stopped  and  looked  in  both  directions — pedestrians  1 
Kept  moving  and  looked  in  both  directions  (of  all 

pedestrians,  vehicles,  teams  and  autos)  2 

Kept  moving  and  looked  pi  one  direction 7 

Kept  moving  and  looked  straight  ahead 91 

(on  a total  of  over  30,000  individual  movements) 

On  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  Southwest,  1914: 

Per  Cent 

Stopped  and  looked  both  directions 5 

Kept  moving  and  looked  in  both  directions 13 

Kept  moving  and  looked  in  one  direction 18 

Kept  moving  and  looked  straight  ahead 69 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  371 

In  California,  1913 : 

Per  Cent 


Stopped  and  looked  in  both  directions 0.2 

Kept  moving  and  looked  in  both  directions 35 

Kept  moving  and  looked  in  one  direction  7 

Kept  moving  and  looked  straight  ahead 58 


The  California  Railway  Commission  in  1917  tested 
17,000  motor  vehicle  drivers: 

27.8  per  cent  looked  both  ways 
2.7  per  cent  looked  only  one  way 
65.5  per  cent  looked  neither  way  before  crossing. 

A Southern  Pacific  Railway  folder  gives  these  figures  for 
automobile  accidents  during  the  period  from  January  1 
to  August  1,  1917,  taken  from  the  figures  of  eighteen 
railroads : 


Total  number  of  accidents 769 

Trains  striking  autos  426 

Autos  striking  trains 112 

Autos  running  through  crossing  gates 143 

Accidents  at  protected  crossings 766 

Accidents  at  unprotected  crossings 3 

Accidents  at  night 168 

Accidents  during  daylight 540 

Persons  injured  515 

Persons  killed 99 


The  fact  that  practically  all  these  accidents  occurred 
At  protected  crossings  would  seem  to  indicate  that  most 
people  trust  the  railway  to  look  out  for  them,  and  do  not 
assume  any  individual  responsibility.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
also,  that  those  who  did  not  look  either  way  are  in  the 
majority  in  every  count.  Also  the  number  of  automobiles 
that  run  into  trains  is  about  one-fourth  as  many  as  those 
that  try  but  fail  to  get  by  in  front  of  the  train. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  prove  this  to  be  an  important 
item  in  the  vital  and  financial  economies  of  the  nation. 
The  question  then  is,  what  is  the  remedy?  No  specific 
can  be  given  but  relief,  partial,  may  be  secured. 


372  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

(1)  Eliminate  grade  crossings  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
For  this  a cooperation  between  public  and  railroad  by 
legislation  might  be  fair.  Some  States  already  do  this 
going  “fifty-fifty”  on  the  expense. 

(2)  By  combining  public  roads,  that  is  vacating  some, 
changing  others  by  relocation  following  along  the  railroad 
rather  than  cross  over  the  track  twice  as  may  be  necessary 
if  section  lines  be  followed.  Frequently  the  shortening  of 
the  distance  and  betterment  of  grades  will  pay  for  the 
improvement. 

(3)  By  taking  advantage  of  natural  features  in  the 
location  of  new  lines  of  road  and  railway,  and  the  reloca- 
tion of  old,  to  avoid  grade  crossings.  This  has  been  done 
to  a considerable  extent  in  the  more  recent  locations. 

(4)  By  proper  location  and  construction  details: 

(a)  Sharp  angles  in  crossing  should  be  avoided.  The 
crossing  should  be  made  as  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 
track  as  possible.  Flat  easy  curves  can  usually  be  made 
to  lead  up  to  the  crossing  to  accomplish  this.  Secure  an 
angle  greater  than  60°  if  possible.  Catching  wheels  in  the 
flangeways  or  slipping  along  the  track  is  common  when 
the  angle  is  sharp.  Also  a view  of  the  track  to  the  rear 
is  difficult. 

(b)  Steep  grades  near  the  track  should  be  avoided.  In 
Kansas  and  Colorado  the  rule  is  for  a level  grade  for 
20  feet  from  the  track.  It  would  be  better  to  have  this 
read  “not  steeper  than  a 2 per  cent  grade  downward 
from  the  track  for  at  least  40  feet.”  The  roadway  would 
by  this  slight  slope  of  not  more  than  2 feet  in  100 
feet  be  better  drained  and  therefore  would  keep  in  better 
condition.  Level  roads  are  liable  to  hold  water  in  the 
ruts  and  depressions  softening  them  and  the  railway  track 
as  well.  A definite  rule  should  not  be  made,  for  circum- 
stances alter  cases.  The  rails  are  not  always  level.  If 
the  track  is  in  curve  at  point  of  crossing  one  rail  will 
be  superelevated  above  the  other.  If  the  track  is  in  cut, 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  373 

or  half  cut,  it  may  require  different  treatment  than  if  in 
fill.  The  following  sketches  will  illustrate  this. 

LEVEL  CROSSING 


CROSSING  ON  CURVE 


Steep  grades  at  a crossing  should  be  avoided.  The  grade  of  the 
highway  must  conform  to  the  elevation  of  the  rails. 


(c)  For  the  same  reason  the  road  should  have  a crown, 
the  amount  depending  on  the  type,  earth,  sand-clay,  and 
gravel  roads  from  ^ to  1 inch  per  foot  of  width, 
concrete,  asphalt,  brick  and  other  hard  surfaces  may  have 
less. 

(d)  Clear  vision  for  several  hundred  feet  from  the  road- 
way along  the  track  should  be  secured  if  possible.  This 
may  often  be  done  by  the  removal  of  brush  and  weeds 
and  the  trimming  of  trees.  During  certain  seasons  of 
the  year  cornfields  may  obstruct  the  view  from  some  little 
distance  down  the  road,  but  if  there  is  a comparatively 
level  stopping  place  near  the  crossing  the  driver  ought 
to  be  able  to  slow  down  his  machine,  to  have  it  under 
thorough  control,  so  that  it  could  be  stopped  quickly 
and  far  enough  away  from  the  track  for  safety,  while 
he  looks  both  ways  along  the  track.  A little  cooperation 
between  railroad  and  farmer  may  result  in  the  planting 
of  low  growing  crops  where  the  view  would  be  obstructed 
by  the  high  growing  corn.  The  farmer  might  also  be 
willing  to  have  hedges  trimmed  low  and  trees  trimmed 
high  in  such  localities.  In  some  states  the  law^s  provide 


374  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

for  the  annual  trimming  of  trees  and  hedges  near  railway 
crossings. 

(e)  The  railways  at  the  request  of  the  road  officers  will 
usually  arrange  the  rails  so  that  no  joint  will  come  upon 
the  crossing,  thus  keeping  both  road  and  track  in  better 
condition. 


(/)  The  building  of  a right-hand  turn  along  the  railway 
track  at  each  crossing  on  to  which  the  motorist  seeing  that 
he  could  not  pass  ahead  of  the  train  or  stop  his  car  could 
drive.  See  the  figure  above. 

(5)  Drivers  when  they  see  a train  approaching  should 
make  it  a point  to  stop  at  least  100  feet  away  from  the 
track.  If  a flying  stop  is  made  right  near  the  track  the 
engineman  will  be  at  a loss  whether  to  apply  the  air  for 
the  train  to  stop  or  take  a chance  of  hitting  the  vehicle. 
Enginemen  will  appreciate  a little  courtesy  of  this  kind. 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  375 


[Also  it  will  be  much  easier  to  get  a start  to  make  the 
grade  over  the  crossing  if  a longer  distance  is  allowed. 

(6)  Markers  indicating  the  approach  to  a railroad  cross- 
ing placed  300  feet  back  will  serve  as  a caution  warning. 
A good  many  states  are  providing  their  highways  with 
standard  markers.  In  Illinois  certain  crossings  are  desig- 
nated with  a stop  sign  and  it  is  a misdemeanor  to  go  over 
without  first  coming  to  a full  stop.  In  another  state  the 
law  requires  a stop  at  all  crossings  and  a ditch,  or  “thank- 
you-ma’am”  practically  enforces  the  law. 

(7)  Automatic  electrically  driven  gongs,  bells,  colored 
disks,  waving  arms,  or  red  lights  are  expedients  in  quite 
common  use. 

(8)  Crossing  gates  and  watchmen  are  used  where  the 
traffic  is  heavy.  They  are  expensive  and  railroads  like 
to  avoid  them  wherever  possible.  On  Long  Island  it  is 
said  light  gates  were  run  down  by  the  motorists.  Very 
heavy  gates  are  said  to  have  proven  more  efficacious. 

(9)  Locomotives  should  be  equipped  with  whistles 
and  bells  sufficiently  penetrating  to  be  easily  heard 
by  drivers  of  moving  automobiles.  Mr.  Byron  Clark, 
Chief  Counsel  of  the  Burlington  railway  west  of  the 
Missouri  River,  called  the  author’s  attention  to  what  he 
believes  to  be  a fact,  namely,  that  automobilists  when 
traveling  at  a rapid  gait  do  not  hear  the  locomotive 
whistle  which  the  state  law  and  the  railway  rules  require 
to  be  sounded  before  each  crossing.  Since  my  attention 
has  been  called  to  this  matter  I have  watched  it  quite 
closely  and  believe  Mr.  Clark  to  be  right.  Frequently  I 
hear  the  engine  bell  but  not  the  whistle.  It  might  be  well 
to  experiment  with  whistles  and  bells  of  various  types.  Is 
there  a difference  in  the  audibility  of  high-pitched  and 
low-pitched  whistles  and  bells? 

(10)  But  no  matter  what  mechanical  devices  there  are, 
how  carefully  the  enginemen  obey  the  law  about  whistling, 
or  how  vigorously  the  watchman  swings  his  signal,  lack 
of  care  on  the  part  of  the  driver  will  be  productive  of 
accidents.  Before  they  can  be  avoided  or  even  decreased 


376  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

materially  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  people  generally 
to  come  to  a full  understanding  that  they  owe  it  to  them- 
selves, to  the  public  and  to  the  nation  to  be  careful.  Life 
and  accident  insurance  is  only  a method  of  spreading  the 
cost  of  loss  due  to  death  and  accident  over  a larger  num- 
ber. The  economic  loss  to  the  people  as  a whole  is  just 
as  great  whether  there  is  or  is  not  any  insurance.  An 
accident  is  always  an  economic  waste.  “A  careful  man 
is  the  best  safety  device  known.” 

Clearance. — The  New  York  State  Highway  Commission 
makes  it  a rule  to  secure  the  following  clearance : 

When  a highway  passes  under  a railroad  the  crown 
elevation  is  made  13.5  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  bridge 
girder,  and  the  minimum  right  angle  distance  between 
abutments  is  taken  as  26  feet.  The  distance  from  the 
base  of  the  rail  to  the  bottom  of  the  girder  varies  with 
the  span  of  the  bridge  and  ranges  from  2 ft.  2 in.  for  a 
30-foot  span  to  2 ft.  4^2  in.  for  a 110-foot  span. 

Where  the  highway  crosses  over  the  railroad  a minimum 
clearance  of  21.0  feet  is  required  from  the  top  of  the 
rail  to  the  bottom  of  the  highway  bridge  girders.  The 
span  or  right  angle  opening  will  vary  with  the  number 
of  tracks  and  the  standards  of  the  railways.  It  is,  of 
course,  well  to  have  a clear  opening  over  the  entire  used 
roadway.  The  practice  in  some  places,  of  having  pirn's 
or  piles  in  the  center  of  the  road,  unless  there  is  placed 
around  these  a safety  zone  or  park  extending  each  way 
along  the  street  so  that  traffic  may  be  separated  some 
little  distance  before  coming  to  the  pier,  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended. 

Pedestrians. —While  it  has  been  said  that  90  per 
cent  of  the  accidents  are  due  to  lack  of  caution  on  the 
part  of  the  driver,  it  must  not  be  thought  that  there  is 
no  contributory  negligence. 

Pedestrians  constantly  go  across  the  street  without  look- 
ing up  to  right  or  left.  Others  look  with  a leer  as  much 
as  to  say,  “hit  me  if  you  dare,”  and  leisurely  proceed. 
They  will  not  hurry  one  bit,  thus  causing  a slow  down 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  377 

of  the  approaching  motor  and  that  in  turn  of  the  next, 
and  the  next,  producing  a congestion  in  traffic  with  its 
known  liabilities.  Each  party  has  a right  to  the  street, 
but  courtesy  should  be  extended  on  both  sides.  When 
there  is  no  traffic  officer,  motorists  should  remember  to 
give  pedestrians  time  to  cross,  and  pedestrians  should 
hurry  a little  so  as  not  to  delay  motor  traffic. 

Jay  Walking. — Another  source  of  danger  which  can  not 
be  too  strongly  condemned  is  the  practice  of  “jay  walk- 
ing.” The  driver  of  a car  along  a crowded  thoroughfare 
is  never  sure  but  what  some  person  will  pop  out  from 
behind  a parked  vehicle  and  start  across  the  street  di- 
rectly ahead  of  his  machine.  By  the  ordinances  of  most 
cities  parking  is  prohibited  near  the  ends  of  blocks  and 
the  proper  walking  spaces.  Vision  is  there  clear  to  the 
sidewalks.  The  motorist  is  expecting  pedestrians  and  is 
on  the  lookout  for  them.  But  in  the  middle  of  the  block 
with  parked  cars  along  each  side  with  travel  more  rapid 
than  over  the  walking  spaces  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  hit- 
ting the  exasperating  jay  walker. 

Obstacles  that  Obscure  Vision. — Many  pedestrians  have 
received  injury  or  been  killed  by  stepping  around  the 
rear  of  street  cars,  trucks,  and  other  obstructions  to  clear 
vision,  directly  in  front  of  a passing  vehicle.  So  sud- 
denly does  the  pedestrian  come  into  the  path  of  the 
moving  vehicle  that  the  driver  can  not  stop  before  hitting 
him.  The  remedy  is  care  on  the  part  of  the  pedestrian. 
Look  before  crossing,  is  always  an  excellent  slogan. 

Pedestrians  on  Country  Roads. — When  pedestrians  walk 
along  country  roads  they  should  habitually  take  their 
left-hand  side.  Thus  they  will  meet  face  to  face  those 
machines  that  are  passing  along  that  side  of  the  roadway, 
whereas  if  they  walk  on  the  right-hand  side  the  machines 
are  coming  up  from  their  rear  and  may  come  near  before 
sounding  the  horn.  A startled  person  often  jumps  in  the 
wrong  direction,  thus  moving  in  front  of  instead  of  away 
from  the  impending  danger. 


378  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Miitgation 

Slow-Going  Vehicles. — Horse-drawn  vehicles  should 
travel  on  the  outer  side  of  the  road  if  possible  in  order 
to  allow  faster  going  vehicles  to  pass  them  readily.  Often 
a slow-going  truck  will  take  the  middle  of  the  roadway 
and  stubbornly  keep  it  even  when  asked  courteously  by 
horn  to  get  over.  In  trying  to  pass  by  going  par- 
tially off  the  paved  way  motors  have  slipped  down  due 
to  the  soft  earth  shoulders,  with  serious  injuries  to  both 
persons  and  machines.  Where  traffic  is  heavy  congestion 
results  from  slow-going  vehicles  not  taking  the  outer  side 
of  the  way,  with  its  usual  disastrous  effects. 

Bicycles. — Boys  on  bicycles  become  extremely  careless 
and  fool-hardy.  They  cut  in  front  of  rapidly  moving 
cars  and  weave  from  one  side  of  the  roadway  to  the 
other.  They  dart  in  from  behind  a parked  car  or  from 
a side  street.  When  moving  not  straight  along  the  wheels 
are  always  likely  to  slip  on  wet  spots  in  the  pavement 
or  catch  in  the  flangeway  of  the  street-car  tracks. 

The  bicycle  is  in  itself  a very  useful  machine  and,  per- 
haps, the  most  economical  vehicle  built.  Its  use  is  to  be 
encouraged  by  furnishing  special  pathways  for  it  to  run 
upon  wherever  that  is  practicable.  When  used  on  the 
main  thoroughfares  extreme  care  is  necessary.  The  motor- 
cycle is  a rapidly  going  machine  and  should  be  treated 
in  the  same  category  as  the  automobile. 

The  matter  of  lights  for  non-motorized  traffic  has  been 
mentioned.  It  would  be  well  for  all  to  carry  lights  or 
reflectors.  Motor-cycles  with  side-cars  should  carry  two 
lights  in  front,  one  for  the  cycle  and  the  other  for  the 
side-car. 

Road  and  Traffic  Regulations. — Very  great  credit  for 
the  development  of  traffic  regulation  in  the  United  States 
during  the  past  two  decades  is  due  to  the  persistent  and 
unselfish  efforts  of  William  Phelps  Eno,6  who  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  last  century  began  an  agitation  to  reform  the 

6 Formerly  Chairman  of  the  Citizens  ’ Street  Traffic  Committee  of 
New  York  City,  Honorary  President  of  the  Highway  Traffic  Asso- 
ciation of  the  state  of  New  York,  Chairman  of  the  Advisory  Com- 
mittee for  the  Highway  Transport  Committee  of  the  United  States 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  379 

traffic  situation  in  New  York  City.  In  December,  1899, 7 
he  published  an  article  on  “Reform  in  Our  Street  Traffic 
Most  Urgently  Needed,”  followed  by  many  others,  with  per- 
sonal letters  and  visits  to  the  city  officers,  and  with  the 
publication  of  circulars  and  pamphlets.  At  first  he  was 
not  received  very  favorably  by  city  officers  who  seemed 
more  interested  in  “what  personal  benefit”  Eno  expected 
to  get  out  of  it,  than  to  the  good  that  would  come  to  the 
public  through  such  regulation.  He  later  received  favor- 
able consideration  by  Maj.  Gen.  Francis  V.  Greene,  Police 
Commissioner,  and  by  Capt.  A.  R.  Piper,  U.  S.  A.  Retired, 
who  had  been  placed  in  charge  of  traffic.  In  a letter 
dated  October  14,  1909,  General  Greene  gives  due  credit 
to  Eno,  thus,- 8 

The  plan  for  street  traffic  regulation  owed  its  inception  to  you, 
and  you  have  followed  it  up  consistently  and  persistently  to  its 
present  almost  perfect  development;  and  in  so  doing  you  have 
conferred  a benefit  upon  New  Yorkers  and  the  dwellers  in  other 
large  cities,  of  very  large  proportions. 

As  a result  of  the  combined  work  of  the  city  officers 
and  Mr.  Eno,  a code  was  compiled  which  later  furnished 
the  basis  for  the  code  adopted  by  the  Highway  Transport 
Committee  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  U.  S.  A., 
May  8,  1919.  Most  of  the  larger  cities  in  the  United 
States,  together  with  Paris  and  other  European  cities, 
have  adopted  this  or  similar  codes.  A universal  standard- 
ization of  the  National  Defense  Code  is  being  sought  now 
by  a national  organization — The  Eno  Foundation  for 
Highway  Traffic  Regulation,  Inc.9  This  code  has  been 
revised  once  or  twice  since  first  adopted  by  New  York. 
The  Foundation  will  be  glad  to  receive  suggestions  for 
its  betterment  from  any  persons  interested. 

Council  of  National  Defense,  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Directors 
of  the  Eno  Foundation  for  Highway  Traffic  Regulation,  Inc.,  etc. 

7 ‘ ‘ The  Science  of  Highway  Traffic  Regulation,  ’ ’ by  W.  P.  Eno. 
Distributed  by  Brentano ’s,  New  York. 

9 Eno,  op.  cit. 

9 Main  Office,  Saugatuck,  Fairfield  County,  Conn. 


380  Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation 

Campaigns  like  the  “Safety  First”  and  the  “Cross 
Crossings  Cautiously”  and  other  “No  Accident”  cam- 
paigns have  marked  effects.  If  the  necessity  of  care 
could  be  instilled  into  the  mind  of  every  person,  if  each 
could  be  made  to  realize  that  the  next  accident  might  be 
his,  that  accidents  are  not  only  painful  and  disagreeable 
but  always  result  in  the  destruction  of  property,  in  per- 
sonal injury  or  the  loss  of  life,  the  sum  total  of  savings 
in  money  and  humanity  would  be  tremendous.  All  the 
devices  of  human  ingenuity,  all  the  laws  of  the  sages, 
and  the  education  of  all  agencies  will  not  bring  absolute 
safety.  The  human  race  is  too  ignorant,  too  indolent, 
too  self-complacent,  too  near,  in  short,  the  outskirts  of 
civilization,  and  the  person  ivho  suggests  the  utmost  care, 
who  would  curtail  the  thrills  of  chance  and  danger  is  a 
“joy  killer”  and  a “crepe  hanger.”  Perhaps  so.  In- 
finite care  might  result  in  “innocuous  desuetude.”  It  is 
said  that  there  was  introduced  into  a western  legislature 
a bill  providing  that  two  trains  on  different  tracks  ap- 
proaching their  crossing  point  “should  both  stop  and 
neither  proceed  until  the  other  had  passed.”  The  other 
extreme  is  fatalism : “on  with  the  dance,  let  joy  be  uncon- 
fined”; “eat,  drink  and  be  merry.”  Is  there  not  a golden 
mean  ? 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Accidents,  Symposium  on  Automobile  Hazards,  by  Ralph 
Stickle,  James  L.  Roche,  Joseph  H.  Handlon,  and  William 
G.  Fitzpatrick.  Electric  Railway  Journal,  Vol.  LI  I,  pp. 
913-921. 

American  Railway  Association,  Bulletin  issued  as  a part  of  the 
“Cross  Crossings  Cautiously,”  campaign,  1922. 

Darrow,  F.  T.,  Asst.  Chief  Engr.,  C.  B.  & Q.  R.  R.,  “Grade 
Crossing  Elimination,”  Nebraska  Blue  Print,  May,  1920. 
Lincoln. 

Eno,  William  Phelps,  “The  Science  of  Highway  Traffic  Regu- 
lation,” published  by  himself  and  distributed  by  Brentano’s, 
New  York. 

“Facts  and  Figures  of  the  Automobile  Industry,”  1922,  National 
Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  Tork. 


Highway  Accidents  and  their  Mitigation  381 


"Harper’s  Weekly,  Accounts  and  pictures  of  early  railway  acci- 
dents, years  1840-1860. 

Held,  L.  A.,  Adjuster  for  the  American  Railway  Express  Com- 
pany, Express  Messenger,  July,  1922. 

Williar,  Harry  D.,  Jr.,  “Maryland  Road  Accident  Map.” 
Public  Roads,  September,  1921. 


/ 


CHAPTER  XII 


HIGHWAY  ESTHETICS 

One  test  for  success  is  the  degree  of  satisfaction  pro- 
duced. A successful  book  satisfies  the  majority  of  its 
readers.  A machine  is  successful  when  it  performs  the 
duties  intended  to  the  satisfaction  of  its  operators.  In 
business  satisfaction  brings  repeat  orders;  in  art  it  gives 
emotional  pleasure,  and  we  return  again  and  again  to  look 
upon  it.  The  ancient  writer  Vitruvius  says  the  three  in- 
dispensable elements  of  architecture  are  Firmitas,  Utilitas, 
Venustas,  stability,  utility,  beauty.  That  one  which  in  the 
long  run  is  most  pleasing  to  the  builder  and  gives  the 
greatest  degree  of  satisfaction  is  beauty. 

Most  people  are  sensible  to  the  charms  of  nature  and  art, 
that  feeling  excited  in  the  mind  when  observing  those 
things  called  beautiful,  and  to  a feeling  of  revulsion  and, 
possibly,  disgust  when  brought  in  contact  with  the  ugly. 
The  so-called  esthetic  sense  enables  us  to  appreciate  and 
admire  the  beautiful  in  nature  and  art,  to  enjoy  literature 
and  music,  to  delight  in  wit  and  humor,  and  even  to  recog- 
nize beauty  in  a mathematical  problem. 

Can  the  principles  of  esthetic  construction  be  applied  to 
the  humble  road  ? Most  assuredly,  everyone  recognizes  that 
the  first  two  elements,  stability  and  utility,  are  very  essen- 
tial qualifications,  but  the  public  fails  to  get  the  greatest 
possible  satisfaction  from  the  road  because  it  neglects  the 
element  of  beauty.  Until  the  profession  of  Road  Aesthete 
has  been  evolved,  therefore,  it  might  be  well,  in  at  least  a 
crude  way,  to  apply  to  the  highway  some  of  the  principles 
of  architecture  and  landscape  gardening.  Since  the  road- 
way is  of  necessity  flat  it  blends  in  well  with  landscape 

382 


Highway  Esthetics 


383 


gardening  and  the  characteristics  of  unity,  variety,  and  fit- 
ness are  fundamental.  All  parts  that  are  above  the  sur- 
face may  receive  a true  architectural  treatment.  Bridges 
are  especially  amenable.  With  the  very  large  bridges  there 
is  present  the  element  of  size,  vastness,  and  when  properly 
proportioned  they  excite  in  the  mind  of  man  a feeling  of 
awe  akin  to  appreciation  of  the  sublime  in  nature  and  im- 
press upon  him  a deep  sense  of  the  greatness  of  human 
power.  In  all  bridges  the  elements  of  proportion,  harmony 
and  symmetry  are  applicable.  And  with  the  beauty  and 
grandeur  of  form  comes  the  heightened  effect  of  embellish- 
ment— ornament  and  color.  Here,  however,  the  skill,  ex- 
perience, and  taste  of  the  artist  must  come  in.  Embellish- 
ment may  be  carried  too  far.  A simple  decoration  of  con- 
structive parts  is  usually  sufficient.  Massive  concrete  is  it- 
self pleasing,  but  possibly  a rubbing  of  the  surface  will 
enhance  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  and  bring  into  promi- 
nence the  lines  which  the  bridge  architect  desires  to  em- 
phasize. The  coloring  due  to  the  materials  used  is  usually 
deemed  sufficient,  although  there  may  be  places  where  har- 
mony demands  a special  treatment. 

Much  the  same  principles  are  involved  in  landscape  gar- 
dening. It  might  be  well  if  every  road  engineer  also  had 
a course  in  the  art  of  landscape  gardening,  and  some  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  contend  that  the  need  for  the  services  of 
an  expert  landscape  architect  to  assist  in  the  design  of  high- 
ways is  obvious.  The  artistic  qualities  of  landscape  garden- 
ing applicable  to  the  beautification  of  highways  may  be 
conceived  to  be  unity,  variety,  and  character. 

Unity  means  that  in  the  landscape  composition  some 
leading  idea,  motive,  shall  prevail,  and  that  details  shall 
be  subordinate  to  it.  In  order  that  a motive  may  be  most 
effective  one  master  mind  should  have  charge  of  the  land- 
scape work  for  an  entire  road ; plans  should  be  completely 
made  and  all  planting  within  and  along  the  edges  of  the 
right  of  way  should  be  absolutely  under  his  supervision. 
In  only  a few  instances  has  road  gardening  been  carried  to 
this  extent.  Perhaps  this  may  be  due  to  a lack  of  art  educa- 


384 


Highway  Esthetics 


tion  on  the  part  of  the  public,  to  a sort  of  inherent  feeling 
that  Nature  will  take  care  of  her  own  and  cover  without 
artificial  aid  all  ugly  spots,  or  to  a lack  of  necessary 
funds. 

Two  great  styles  ordinarily  mentioned  are  the  Natural 
and  the  Architectural.  They  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
the  English  and  the  Italian,  because  they  have  been  re- 
spectively most  highly  developed  in  these  countries.  An- 
other style  called  the  Picturesque  has  its  adherents  for 
certain  locations. 

The  natural  style  attempts  to  retain  naturalness  as  far 
as  possible— in  extreme  cases  refusing  to  prune  trees  or 
clear  out  trees  weakened  by  decay  and  blown  down  by  the 
wind.  Generally  the  best  effects  are  obtained  by  not  going 
that  far.  Open  lawns,  curved  lines,  and  grouped  trees  are 
utilized  to  obtain  the  appearance  of  naturalness.  Shrubs 
and  flowering  perennials  are  used  to  furnish  a natural  and 
pleasing  connection  between  the  open  lawns  and  the  wooded 
portions  of  the  landscape.  They  may  be  used  in  profusion 
to  hide  unnatural  and  inartistic  features,  and  often  will  be 
low  enough  to  look  over  and  therefore  beautiful  vistas 
need  not  be  eliminated. 

The  Architectural  style  seeks  to  carry  the  architectural 
composition  of  the  buildings  into  the  landscape.  The  ex- 
treme Italian  style  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  extreme 
English.  It  has  been  said  that  they  are  mutually  exclusive. 
For  best  effects  that  may  be  true,  but  the  modern  tendency 
seems  to  be  to  recognize  that  each  lias  its  advantage  in 
special  situations.  Modern  landscape  architects  are  not 
adverse  to  a proper  mixture  of  the  two. 

The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  road  gardening  will  be 
best  as  a compromise  between  the  two  extreme  styles.  The 
fact  that  the  road  must  be  laid  down  through  a long, 
narrow  stretch  of  land,  that  ditches  must  be  maintained 
for  drainage,  that  embankments  and  cuts  must  continually 
alternate,  makes  a purely  naturalistic  treatment  impossible. 
The  geometrical  must  be  in  evidence.  In  country  districts 
with  wide  right  of  ways — in  some  places  they  are  as  much 


Highway  Esthetics 


385 


as  200  feet — the  road  may  be  considered  as  separating  two 
plots  in  which  there  is  room  for  much  open  grassy  space 
and  group  planting  along  the  outer  edges.  With  narrower 
roads  the  trees  will  necessarily  be  planted  in  rows  uni- 
formly spaced,  depending  upon  the  width  of  the  street 
and  species  of  trees,  giving  an  “avenue”  effect.  In  cities 
greater  formality  is  necessary  than  in  the  country,  but  even 
there  planting  the  less  formal  trees  will  tend  to  give  more 
or  less  naturalness  to  the  whole. 

The  architects  will  not  agree  with  me  in  believing  that 
satisfactory  combinations  of  the  two  great  styles  may  be 
obtained.  They  believe  that  street  planting,  for  example, 
should  be  in  (1)  parallel  rows  with  the  street  (2),  the  trees 
should  be  uniformly  spaced,  and  (3)  the  individual  trees 
should  be  just  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible.  I will  admit 
that  the  main  lines  of  trees  should  be  parallel  with  the 
street  but  do  not  admit  that  irregular  groups  of  shrubbery 
and  flowers  will  destroy  the  artistic  effect.  That  the  larger 
trees  should  be  uniformly  spaced  and  of  the  same  variety 
and  size  for  the  same  block  or  street  is  also  admitted. 
But,  that  such  trees  as  the  American  elm,  for  instance,  be- 
cause it  is  lacking  in  formality,  is  not  a good  street  tree, 
cannot  be  admitted.  Neither  do  I believe  that  an  avenue 
made  up  of  palms,  Lombardy  poplars,  or  dwarfed  catalpas, 
is  any  more  beautiful,  harmonious  or  restful  than  a street  of 
long  curving  pendulant  elms,  although  geometrical  boldness 
has  not  been  so  thoroughly  carried  out  in  the  latter  case. 
Clipped  trees,  occasionally  in  fantastic  shapes,  are  some- 
times seen.  It  scarcely  needs  to  be  said,  that  however  ap- 
propriate they  may  be  in  an  Italian  villa,  they  have  no  place 
along  an  American  highway.  But  neatly  clipped  hedges 
of  privet  or  mulberry  may  add  materially  in  outlining  the 
geometrical  arrangement. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  the  main  trees  along  a country 
highway  should  be  much  farther  apart  than  they  are 
usually  planted.  Two  to  three  times  the  spread  of  a grown 
tree  of  the  same  variety  in  that  region  is  none  too  much. 
Or  the  distance  may  equal  the  height  plus  the  spread.  If 


386 


Highway  Esthetics 


they  are  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  roadway  they  should 
be  alternated,  staggered.  This  gives  the  trees  each  in- 
dividually an  opportunity  of  undisturbed  growth,  and  if 
they  are  adapted  to  the  locality  and  well  fed  will  form  large 
symmetrical  trees.  American  elms,  for  the  Mid-west  states 
should  be  placed  not  less  than  100  feet  apart  along  country 
roads.  Lombardy  poplar  closer,  say  75  feet;  while  they 
do  not  spread  so  very  far  they  do  grow  high.  Another  rea- 
son, in  addition  to  that  of  unrestricted  growth,  for  setting 
the  trees  far  apart  is  that  for  some  distance  from  a tree, 
perhaps  because  of  the  spread  of  its  roots  or  the  shade, 
crops  do  not  grow  well.  And  as  the  tree  must  usually  be 
planted  near  the  edge  of  the  right  of  way,  the  farmer  who 
owns  the  adjacent  land  is  being  robbed  of  the  fertility  of 
his  soil.  The  fewer  trees  that  may  be  set  and  still  give  a 
good  appearance  the  better.  The  improved  appearance  of 
the  highway  and  its  benefit  to  the  farm  fully  compensates 
for  the  loss  of  land,  without  doubt,  when  the  trees  are 
spaced  wide  as  has  been  suggested. 

The  varieties  of  trees  that  should  be  planted  along  high- 
ways depends  upon  the  location  of  the  land.  Those  species 
that  will  thrive  on  low  bottom  land  may  not  thrive  on  the 
table  and  upland.  The  eucalyptus  grows  rapidly  into  a 
tall,  dignified  stately  tree  in  California,  but  would  not  live 
at  all  in  Minnesota.  The  paper  birch  of  Michigan  and 
New  York  might  be  out  of  place  entirely  in  Texas.  Only 
those  trees  should  be  planted  that  experience  shows  are 
fitted  for  the  region  and  locality.  In  Europe  it  is  common 
practice  to  plant  apple  and  other  fruit  trees  along  the 
highway.  Such  trees  might  not  thrive  under  American 
vandalism.  Mr.  C.  A.  Reed  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture1  recommends  the  planting  of  nut 
trees.  Among  others  he  mentions  black  walnut,  hickory, 
Japanese  walnut,  beech,  chestnut,  filbert  or  hazel,  and 
pecan.  Of  non-nut-bearing  trees  he  thinks  the  elm  the  best 
all-around  tree.  He  also  mentions  the  sugar  maple,  the 

1 In  a paper  presented,  1921,  at  the  meeting  of  the  Michigan  State 
Good  Eoads  Association. 


Highway  Esthetics 


387 


linden,  the  apple,  and  especially  a native  variety  known  as 
thorn  apple,  hawthorn  or  red  haw. 

There  are  many  other  species  that  grow  well.  The  pin 
oak  and  other  varieties  of  oak  may  be  transplanted;  two 
or  three  poplars — a variety  of  cottonwood  known  commer- 
cially as  Carolina  poplar  is  a rapid  growing  but  short- 
lived tree;  ashes,  locusts;  catalpa,  sycamore,  the  pines, 
spruces,  cedars,  and  larches,  all  do  well  in  some  localities. 
Plums,  choke-cherries,  and  black  haws  make  good  screen- 
ing thickets  and  furnish  fruit  for  the  birds.  The  wild 
grape  and  the  Virginia  creeper  will  soon  completely  cover 
unsightly  fences,  rocks,  and  stumps ; the  birds  also  like  their 
fruits.  For  low  planting  practically  all  the  shrubs  used  in 
decorative  gardening  are  available,  while  the  perennial 
herbaceous  flowering  plants  become  veritable  splotches  of 
color  to  delight  the  eye  of  the  discerning  wayfarer. 

In  the  language  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  “It  will  not 
do  to  be  exclusive  in  our  tastes  about  trees.  There  is  hardly 
one  of  them  which  has  not  peculiar  beauties  in  some  fitting 
place  for  it.  ’ ’ Even  a blasted  and  wind-torn  tree,  or  those 
trees  which  have  the  quality  of  pieturesqueness,  such  as  the 
gingko,  cut -leaved  maple,  Kentucky  coffee,  weeping  larch, 
or  those  artificially  dwarfed  trees,  catalpa  and  mountain 
ash,  all  may  be  utilized  in  their  appropriate  places. 

Trees. — Apple. — A rather  good-looking  tree  with  a beau- 
tiful show  of  blossoms  in  the  spring.  Used  extensively  as 
a road  tree  in  Europe.  The  native  crab-apple  and  the 
thorn-apple  (red  haw)  are  both  fine  for  their  blossoms. 
They  do  not  grow  large  so  can  be  used  in  group  planting. 

Arbor  vitae. — A species  of  cedar  used  for  screens,  wind- 
breaks, and  hedges,  and  for  filling  in  shrubbery  where  a 
variety  of  color  is  desired. 

Ash. — There  are  some  half  dozen  or  more  varieties  found 
native  in  the  United  States  covering  a region  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Rockies  and  extending  into  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. Nearly  all  of  them  are  suitable  for  road  and  street 
trees.  In  parks  they  are  good  for  massing  as  they  stand 
close  planting. 


388 


Highway  Esthetics 


Aspen. — A species  of  poplar,  rapid  growing  and  often 
springs  up  in  the  pine  forests  after  the  conifers  have  been 
cut  off.  The  color  of  the  leaves  makes  it  desirable  in  some 
plantings.  Will  grow  in  close  masses. 

Balm  of  Gilead. — A species  of  poplar  (black  cotton- 
wood) ; a good-looking  tree  but  like  other  poplars  not  es- 
pecially desirable  as  a road  tree,  but  in  all  the  Northern 
states  where  quick  growth  is  wanted  might  be  used. 

Baynboo. — Native  of  South  Sea  Island,  Philippines, 
southern  Asia,  other  southern  countries  and  a species  in 
Florida.  A rapid  growing  plant,  quite  graceful,  and  can 
be  utilized  for  group  and  massive  planting  where  accli- 
mated. 

Basswood. — See  Linden. 

Bay. — See  Laurel. 

Beech. — A beautiful  tree  both  in  summer  and  winter. 
Best  when  grown  individually.  There  are  fifteen  or  more 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  ( Flagus ).  The  blue  beech 
or  ironwood,  a rather  small  tree,  may  be  used  where  its 
peculiar  color  is  desired. 

Birch. — Some  twenty-four  species  are  known  in  the 
United  States,  inhabiting  mostly  the  northern  part,  ex- 
tending into  Canada  and  Alaska.  The  birches,  especially 
the  paper  or  white  birch,  are  distinguished  by  their  light- 
colored  bark.  That  of  the  white  birch  was  used  by  the  In- 
dians for  canoes.  It  is  an  excellent  park  tree  if  it  can  be 
saved  from  being  peeled  by  the  ubiquitous  vandal. 

Box  Elder. — A species  of  maple  found  quite  generally 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  grows 
to  a height  of  approximately  fifty  feet  with  a spread  about 
the  same.  It  casts  a dense  shade  and  since  it  will  stand 
severe  climatic  changes  is  a good  tree  for  the  naturally 
treeless  sections.  Has  been  used  much  as  a street  tree, 
although  not  particularly  shapely  as  to  trunk. 

Buckeye. — The  buckeye  and  horse  chestnut  are  species  of 
the  same  genus.  To  the  native  species  is  usually  given  the 
name  buckeye.  The  Ohio  buckeye  is  from  30  to  45  feet  in 


PIN  OAK  STREET  TREES 


A COTTONWOOD  WIND  BREAK 


Highway  Esthetics  389 

height  and  is  useful  in  mass  planting  and  not  at  its  best 
in  road  planting. 

Camphor. — The  Camphor  Tree  ( Cinnamomum  cam- 
phor a)  is  quite  commonly  planted  for  street  trees  in  the 
Southeastern,  Southern  and  the  Southwestern  states.  The 
tree  is  a thrifty  grower  and  is  nice  and  straight.  The  leaves 
and  wood  have  the  characteristic  aromatic  camphor  odor, 
and  from  them  can  be  extracted  the  juice.  Another  tree 
of  the  same  genus  C.  zeylanicum  has  also  been  imported 
from  Asia  and  may  be  found  in  the  same  states.  From  the 
roots  is  obtained  cassia  bark. 

Catalpa. — Was  planted  extensively  a few  years  ago  be- 
cause it  was  thought  it  would  quickly  develop  timber  large 
enough  for  fence  posts  and  ties  in  a few  years.  The  best 
variety  is  the  Catalpa  speciosa,  which  grows  under  favor- 
able conditions  to  a height  of  60  feet,  with  a spread  of  30 
feet.  The  leaves  are  large  and  of  good  color,  but  slow  to 
appear  in  the  spring  and  drop  at  the  first  frost  in  the  fall. 
The  flowers  are  very  showy.  For  this  reason,  its  general 
shapely  appearance,  and  its  rapid  growth,  it  is  a good  road 
tree.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  very  long  lived,  and  as  a street 
tree  it  is  objected  to  by  those  having  close  cropped  lawns 
because  of  its  bad  habit  of  shedding  its  long  seed  pods  all 
summer. 

Cedar. — There  are  many  species  of  cedars,  both  red  and 
white.  The  arbor  vitae  has  already  been  mentioned. 
Juniperus  virginiana  is  perhaps  the  best  road  tree.  It 
grows  from  50  to  80  feet  tall  with  a spread  of  one-quarter 
to  one-third  its  height.  It  is  suitable  in  nearly  every  place 
where  evergreens  can  be  utilized.  Its  pyramidal  shape 
makes  it  well  adapted  to  formal  landscape  architecture  and 
hence  would  make  a good  road  tree  for  avenue  planting. 

Citrus  Fruit. — Orange,  lemon,  grapefruit,  and  citron  are 
freely  planted  in  Florida  and  California.  Where  these 
come  up  to  the  highway  they  answer  for  road  trees.  The 
citrus  trees  have  a beautiful  dark  green  shiny  foliage  with 


390  Highway  Esthetics 

a round  top,  and  with  their  flowers  and  ripening  fruit  are 
always  interesting. 

Coffee  Tree. — A good  lawn  or  park  tree,  but  a very  few 
specimens  will  be  sufficient. 

Cherry. — The  wild  cherry,  Prunus  serotina,  also  called 
black-cherry,  grows  native  over  much  of  the  eastern  and 
central  portions  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the  tree  from 
which  the  cherry  wood  is  obtained.  It  is  hardy,  grows 
to  a good  height,  40  to  80  feet,  with  a spread  of  20  to  40 
feet.  It  is  a good  road  tree  spoken  of  by  one  writer  as 
“charmingly  unconventional,”  and  bears  a slightly  bitter 
pea-sized  fruit  of  which  the  birds  are  fond.  It  is  deserving 
of  larger  planting  as  a road  and  street  tree.  The  choke- 
cherry  is  a much  smaller  tree,  from  5 to  20  feet  high  and 
can  be  used  in  massing  and  screening.  The  blossoms  in 
the  spring  and  a little  later  the  fruit  of  which  birds  are 
extremely  fond,  make  it  worthy  of  attention.  The  Japa- 
nese flowering  cherry  and  tame  cherries  are  sometimes  used 
for  their  blossoms. 

Cottonwood,. — A species  of  poplar  found  native  from 
Maine  to  Florida  and  westward  to  the  Koeky  Mountains. 
Being  so  hardy  and  a rapid  growing  tree,  it  was  planted 
freely  by  the  early  settlers  in  the  plains  regions  of  the 
Mid-west.  A variety  known  as  Carolina  poplar  grows 
especially  straight  and  tall,  from  75  to  100  feet,  with  a 
spread  of  25  to  30  feet.  The  cottonwood  is  not  strong  and 
is  liable  to  be  broken  in  the  wind,  because  of  this  fact  old 
trees  are  usually  more  or  less  unsightly.  The  shedding  of 
cotton  from  the  pistilate  tree  is  objected  to,  but  this  trouble 
may  be  avoided  by  propagating  only  from  staminate  trees 
by  cuttings.  Nevertheless  it  is  a valuable  tree  where  rapid 
growth  and  quick  shade  is  desired. 

Chestnut. — The  chestnut  ( Castania  vulgarus ) and  one  or 
two  other  species  was  formerly  an  important  timber  tree 
in  the  Eastern  states.  The  tree  when  not  in  foliage  looks 
something  like  red  oak.  It  grows  to  a height  of  75  to  100 
feet,  5 to  12  feet  in  diameter.  In  Europe  a chestnut  is 
mentioned  204  feet  in  circumference.  The  spread  of  the 


Highway  Esthetics 


391 


tree  is  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  its  height.  The  nuts 
are  edible.  A bark  disease  has  carried  off  most  of  the 
Eastern  trees,  and  the  larvae  of  insects  almost  universally 
infect  the  nuts.  However,  it  is  a rapid  grower  and  might 
be  worth  planting  where  it  is  known  to  thrive. 

Cucumber  Tree — A large,  handsome  tree,  symmetrical, 
50  to  75  feet  in  height  of  the  magnolia  family,  its  fruit  re- 
sembling cucumbers.  It  is  a native  of  the  Eastern  states. 

Cypress. — The  bald  cypress,  though  a large  tree  and  of 
commercial  importance,  has  little  value  as  a road  tree  be- 
cause it  grows  in  swamps,  the  very  worst  place  for  a road. 
It  might  be  utilized  in  the  lake  of  a park. 

Dogwood. — A native  shrub  of  several  varieties.  Its  low 
growing  tendencies,  its  beautiful  flowers  and  showy  fruit 
make  it-  a valuable  ornamental  shrub  for  parks.  A species 
Cornus  florida  grows  into  a tree  some  25  feet  high. 

Douglas  Spruce  or  Fir. — Snow2  states  this  ( Pseudotsuga ) 
genus  “is  neither  a true  pine,  spruce,  nor  fir,  but  a sort 
of  bastard  hemlock.  The  name  ‘pseudotsuga’  is  from 
pseudo,  or  false,  and  tsuga  or  hemlock.”  These  trees  are 
among  the  largest  known  and  the  wonder  of  the  traveler 
through  the  forests  of  Oregon  and  Washington.  Along  the 
lines  of  these  roads  it  were  well,  if  the  pleasure  of  the 
tourist  be  of  import,  to  retain  the  most  beautiful  specimens. 
It  grows  from  175  to  sometimes  300  feet  in  height,  and  3 to 
5,  and  sometimes  10  feet  in  diameter. 

Elm. — The  American  elm  ( Ulmus  americana ) is  consid- 
ered by  many  to  be  the  best  street  and  road  tree  in  this 
country.  It  has  a large  rounded  top  with  long  graceful 
branches.  The  shade  is  not  very  dense  and  the  lack  of 
foliage  near  the  ground  allows  the  free  circulation  of  air. 
It  grows  into  an  exceptionally  fine  individual  specimen 
and  will  also  group  well.  The  general  good  appearance  of 
the  tree  both  in  summer  and  in  winter  makes  it  a favorite. 
There  are  some  fifteen  different  species  of  elm  distributed 
over  the  temperate  portions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 

2 ‘ ‘ The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,  ” by  C.  H.  Snow,  Wiley  & Sons, 

New  York. 


392 


Highway  Esthetics 


except  along  the  western  coast  of  North  America.  The  wood 
being  tough  and  fibrous  it  withstands  damage  from  the 
wind  fairly  well.  Occasionally  the  long  branches  become 
so  heavy  they  break  down,  but  usually  the  tree  is  so  well 
balanced  that  it  stands  up  well.  The  white  or  American 
elm  is  the  favorite  for  road  work.  The  red  or  slippery  elm 
( TJ . pubescens)  is  a beautiful  tree  and  would  be  used  more 
frequently  in  road  and  park  work  were  it  not  that  its 
delectable  mucilaginous  inner-bark  makes  it  the  mark  of  the 
road  vandal.  White  elm  grows  from  90  to  100  feet  in 
height  with  a spread  of  50  to  75  feet.  There  is  a tree  now 
being  featured  by  the  nurseries  called  English  elm  which 
has  a smooth  bark  and  very  shapely  appearance.  The  cork 
elm  (U.  racemosa),  grows  from  75  to  90  feet  in  height, 
best  developed  in  southern  Ontario  and  Michigan,  with  a 
somewhat  rough  shaggy  bark,  is  also  a good  road  tree. 

Eucalyptus. — This  genus  includes  about  400  species. 
They  are  variously  and  locally  known  as  gum  trees,  stringy- 
barks,  iron-barks,  mahoganies,  and  box,  and  are  natives  of 
Australia  and  neighboring  islands.  They  have  been  widely 
planted  throughout  the  world  in  warm  climates.  The  blue 
gum  ( Eucalyptus  globulus ) does  well  at  least  as  far  north 
as  Sacramento,  and  has  practically  changed  the  landscape 
of  Southern  California  and  Arizona.  The  tree  has  an  ex- 
tremely rapid  growth,  reaching  a height  of  200  and  some- 
times 300  feet.  Some  of  the  trees  have  a shaggy  exfoliat- 
ing bark  while  others  seem  smooth.  The  leaves  of  the 
young  tree  in  some  of  the  species,  very  noticeable  in  the 
blue  gum,  change  their  form  and  color  as  the  tree  reaches 
a certain  age.  Likewise  the  color  and  shape  of  the  leaves 
and  flowers  differ  widely  with  different  species.  They  all 
are  “evergreen”  but  the  leathery  leaves  are  blue,  gray,  or 
green.  The  leaves  of  the  blue  gum  are  blue,  oval,  and 
stalkless  when  the  tree  is  young  while  the  leaves  of  the  older 
trees  have  stems,  are  dark  green,  some  10  or  12  inches  long, 
an  inch  wide,  and  sickle  shaped.  In  southern  California 
they  have  been  known  to  grow  25  feet  in  one  year.  The 
various  varieties  may  be  used  in  various  ways,  some  for 


Highway  Esthetics 


393 


wind  breaks  and  massing  and  some  for  individual  speci- 
mens. Some  are  brilliant  with  flowers  during  a period  of 
year  when  other  flowers  are  scarce.  Eucalyptus  oil  ex- 
tracted from  them  is  used  as  a medicine.  For  dry  warm 
climates  they  make  an  excellent  road  tree. 

Fir. — There  are  a large  number  of  species  and  like  other 
evergreens  have  their  uses  in  landscape  work.  They  look 
much  like  the  spruces.  In  the  West  many  of  them  grow 
to  tremendous  sizes. 

Gingko. — A picturesque  tree,  sometimes  called  the  maiden- 
hair, has  been  used  about  the  city  of  Washington  for  street 
purposes.  Gingko  biloba  is  a native  of  Japan.  While  beau- 
tiful it  would  require  much  care  to  get  it  properly  started. 

Gum  Tree. — The  name  is  applied  to  trees  of  diverse 
species.  Sweet  gum  ( Liquidambar  styraciflua ) grows 
from  Connecticut  to  Florida,  and  westward,  intermittently 
to  Illinois  and  Texas.  Greatest  development  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  This  is  a tall,  straight  tree  with 
symmetrical  top,  rather  smooth  bark  with  corky  ridges.  A 
good-looking  road  tree.  The  star-shaped  leaves  turn  bril- 
liant scarlet  in  the  fall.  The  seed  pods  are  a sort  of  bur 
or  rounded  ball.  Black,  or  sour  gum,  while  the  wood  is 
difficult  to  work  and  does  not  burn  easily,  ought  to  be  a 
fairly  successful  road  tree  in  some  localities.  Grows  from 
45  to  100  feet  high. 

Hedge. — See  Osage  Orange. 

Hackberry. — In  the  Western  prairie  states  has  proven 
itself  to  be  a very  good  street  tree.  Grows  to  a height  of 
about  50  feet  with  a spread  of  30  feet.  The  bark  is  corky 
and  deep  cut,  giving  it  a rough  surface.  In  general  ap- 
pearance resembles  the  elm.  Deserves  more  general  plant- 
ing. 

Hemlock. — Is  found  native,  in  several  species,  over  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  southern  Canada. 
Frequently  found  with  broad-leaved  and  other  needle- 
leaved timber.  Tsuga  conadensis  grows  from  60  to  80  feet 
in  height,  has  short  leaves,  green  above  and  light  beneath, 


394 


Highway  Esthetics 


a straight  trunk  and  beautiful  appearance.  Western  hem- 
lock is  found  as  high  as  6500  feet  above  sea  level. 

Hickory. — The  several  species  of  this  genus  are  recom- 
mended highly  for  road  purposes  in  the  Eastern  half  of 
the  United  States.  Probably  at  its  best  from  Michigan  to 
Missouri.  The  shagbark  ( Hicoria  ovata)  grows  to  a height 
of  75  to  90  feet  with  a spread  of  half  as  much.  The  bark 
is  rough  and  shaggy — hence  the  name.  It  bears  fine  edible 
nuts  in  abundance.  It  will  well  repay  planting  along  the 
roads.  Pignut  (H.  glabra)  a fine  tree  of  about  the  same 
height  has  a smooth  bark  and  nuts  that  are  rather  bitter 
and  sometimes  astringent,  but  from  its  fine  appearance  and 
useful  wood  is  worthy  of  planting.  Pecan  ( H . pecan) 
is  especially  adaptable  to  the  more  southern  climates, 
growing  very  thriftily  in  Texas  and  other  Southern  states. 
Reed  says,3  “it  is  the  noblest  nut  tree  of  all  American 
species.  Beautiful  trees,  sometimes  3 or  4 feet  through  at 
the  base  and  from  100  to  150  feet  tall,  occur  in  the  alluvial 
soils  of  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries  and  in  the 
Southwest.  In  the  Southern  states  it  forms  a splendid 
roadside  tree  and  orchards  of  it  are  worth  going  long 
distances  to  see.  Very  often  enough  nuts  are  gathered 
from  a half  dozen  trees  on  a city  lot  to  pay  the  taxes  and 
keep  up  the  insurance  on  the  home.  ’ ’ 

Holly. — Occasionally  50  feet  in  height  but  more  often 
much  smaller,  particularly  in  the  North.  Occurs  from 
Massachusetts  to  Texas.  The  foliage  is  evergreen  and  the 
beautiful  red  berries  remain  until  spring.  Might  be  util- 
ized in  park  plantings. 

Horse  Chestnut. — See  Buckeye. 

Juniper. — See  Cedar. 

Koelreuteria. — Koelreuteria  paniculata  is  recommended 
for  a park  tree  for  middle  ground  planting,  being  a small 
tree,  15  to  30  feet  high,  with  feathery  pinnate  leaves  and 
yellow  blossoms. 

Larch.—' The  larches  are  deciduous,  needle-leaved  coni- 

11  “Useful  Trees  for  Boadside  Planting,”  a paper  before  the  Michi- 
gan State  Good  Eoads  Association,  1921. 


Highway  Esthetics 


395 


fers.  A tall,  straight,  slender  tree.  If  planted  at  all 
should  be  in  groups  or  masses.  The  winter  aspect  is  not 
particularly  inviting. 

Laurel. — The  laurels,  known  as  magnolia  trees,  Magnolia 
grandi flora  found  along  the  Atlantic  as  far  north  as  Wash- 
ington, and  Umbellularia  calif ornica  and  Arbutus  menziesii 
found  in  California,  are  ornamental  trees  of  the  highest 
rank.  They  make  fine  individual  specimens  reaching  a 
height  from  50  to  100  feet  and  a spread  fully  half  as  much. 
The  dark  evergreen  foliage  and  large  showy  flowers  give 
them  a most  beautiful  appearance.  A magnolia  avenue  is 
certainly  worth  seeing.  Several  other  varieties  of  laurel  are 
recommended  for  planting  as  far  north  as  New  York. 

Lemon. — See  Citrus  Fruit. 

Lignum  vitae. — A low  gnarled  tree  grown  in  semitropical 
regions.  Could  be  used  in  picturesque  landscape  work. 

Linden. — Variously  called  basswood,  whitewood,  linn, 
beetree ; is  found  intermittently  throughout  the  eastern  half 
of  the  United  States.  It  is,  when  grown,  60  to  90  feet  in 
height  and  has  a spread  of  30  to  45  feet.  It  has  large, 
smooth  leaves  and  in  the  spring  its  flowers  are  very  produc- 
tive of  honey.  It  is  quick  growing  but  said  to  be  long  lived. 
The  American  linden  ( Tilia  americana)  is  perhaps  the  most 
thrifty  for  a road  tree.  It  can  be  used  individually  and 
deserves  more  extensive  planting. 

Locust.-—' The  name  locust  seems  to  have  been  applied  to 
three  distinct  genera  of  the  family  Leguminosae.  The 
black  locust  ( Robinia  pseudacia ) is  a fine  appearing  tree 
but  in  the  Middle  West  is  much  subject  to  attack  by 
borers.  In  other  regions  it  does  not  seem  to  suffer  that 
way.  It  attains  a height  of  50  to  75  feet,  and  a spread 
half  as  great.  The  honey  locust,  a little  larger  tree,  75  to 
90  feet  high,  with  a spread  of  30  to  40  feet,  is  less  subject 
to  borer  attack,  and  is  one  of  the  hardiest  trees  for  Western 
Kansas,4  upland  planting.  The  long  compound  thorns  are 
sometimes  objectionable,  but  these  may  be  avoided  by  select- 
ing only  those  specimens  having  no  thorns,  for  the  thorns 

4 “Forestry  and  Irrigation,”  August,  1903. 


396 


Highway  Esthetics 


are  frequently  absent.  As  a road  tree  the  honey  locust  is 
worthy  of  much  attention.  Another  genus  of  locusts  is  the 
ordinary  mesquite  ( Prosopis  juliflora)  of  the  so-called 
desert  regions.  They  sometimes  grow  to  40  or  50  feet  in 
height,  sometimes  they  are  a shrub.  They  are  naturally  a 
dry  country  plant  and  should  be  used  in  places  where  the 
moisture  is  scanty.  It  is  said,5  “The  easily  agitated  foliage 
cools  the  air  to  a surprising  degree.”  The  “cool  shade  of 
the  mesquite”  is  a characteristic  phrase.  A valuable  tree 
in  its  own  region.  The  roots  furnish  wood,  the  pods  are 
filled  with  a sweetish  pulp  from  which  the  Indians,  it  is 
said,  made  “bread,  cake,  and  fermented  drink.”  “A 
black  dye  is  obtained  from  the  sap,  and  a good  mucilage 
from  the  gum.” 

Magnolia. — See  Laurel. 

Maple. — One  of  the  best  road  trees,  by  some  considered 
superior  to  Elm.  The  hard  maple  ( Acer  saccharum ),  the 
soft  maple  ( Acer  saccharinum) , are  the  principal  Ameri- 
can species  of  the  genus,  comprising  very  many,  which  grow 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  Norway  maple  ( Acer 
platanoides ) similar  to  the  hard  or  sugar  maple,  has  been 
imported  and  is  used  to  a considerable  extent.  The  hard 
maple  in  New  York  state  and  the  east  is  a rapid  growing 
tree ; when  transplanted  to  the  plains  region  its  growth  is 
very  slow.  The  Norway  maple  seems  to  be  more  rapid,  but 
that  too,  is  slow  in  those  regions.  Hard  maples  grow  to 
70  or  100  or  more  feet  in  height  with  a spread  of  nearly 
the  same.  When  allowed  to  grow  individually  and  branch 
from  the  ground,  they  form  an  oval  top  nearly  as  wide  as 
high.  The  shade  is  dense  and  the  numerous  branches  in 
winter  and  heavy  foliage  in  summer  give  to  the  tree  a very 
fine  appearance.  The  leaves  turn  yellow  and  scarlet  in  the 
fall  giving  to  the  woods  a most  fascinatingly  gorgeous 
aspect.  What  has  been  said  about  the  hard  maple  is  true 
in  a lesser  extent  of  soft  maples.  In  the  western  part  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  the  soft  maple  is  a much  more  rapid 

“Snow:  “ The  Principal  Species  of  Wood. ’ ’ 2d  Ed.,  Wiley  & Sons, 
N.  Y. 


Highway  Esthetics 


397 


grower.  The  height  attained  is  not  quite  so  great,  40  to  90 
feet.  They  have  when  allowed  room  a fine  shape  some- 
times suggesting  elm.  The  leaves  are  silvery  white  be- 
neath, which  is  why  they  are  sometimes  called  silver  maple. 
They  do  not  turn  so  yellow  or  so  red  in  autumn  as  the 
hard  maple.  On  the  whole  a road  tree  that  may  be  recom- 
mended. The  red  maple  has  been  mentioned  under  the 
name  box  elder.  The  Oregon  maple  ( Acer  macro phyllum) 
about  the  same  size  as  the  soft  maple  is  one  of  the  most 
ornamental  broad-leaved  trees  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

Mulberry. — Red  and  white,  named  from  the  color  of  the 
ripe  fruit,  under  good  conditions  attain  a height  of  40  to  60 
feet,  and  are  quite  ornamental.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  lacking 
in  acid,  but  is  liked  by  the  birds  and  by  some  people.  A 
Russian  shrub  variety  is  used  for  low  hedges  and  stands 
trimming  remarkably  well. 

Oak. — The  oaks  not  only  furnish  the  finest  of  building 
lumber  but  are  practically  all  good  ornamental  trees.  The 
principal  reasons  they  are  not  used  more  are  the  difficulty 
of  transplanting  them  and  their  slow  growth.  However, 
they  are  well  worth  the  trouble  and  wait.  The  oaks,  of 
which  there  are  some  300  species,  are  found  native  in  most 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  in  a few  places  south  of 
the  equator.  They  are  usually  classified  as  white  oaks, 
red  oaks  and  live  oaks.  They  are  quite  easily  distinguished 
by  the  foliage,  bark,  and  general  appearance  of  the  trees, 
but  not  easily,  always,  by  the  wood.  In  all  cases  the  fruit 
is  an  acorn,  an  oval  or  oblongly  lanceolate  smooth  nut 
having  a thin  shell  and  partly  enclosed  in  a scaly  woody 
cup.  A dozen  or  more  species  could  be  described  as  good 
road  and  park  trees,  but  a few  will  suffice.  White  oak 
( Quercus  alba)  is  widespread  throughout  the  north  central 
and  eastern  United  States.  It  rises  to  75  or  100  feet  in 
height  and  spreads  nearly  as  much.  It  is  truly  a mag- 
nificent tree  when  grown.  The  cow  oak  ( Q . michauxii) 
grows  best  in  a slightly  more  southern  region,  is  nearly  the 
same  size.  The  chestnut  oak  ( Q . prinus)  is  slightly  smaller, 
is  found  along  the  eastern  border,  has  leaves  somewhat 


398 


Highway  Esthetics 


resembling  a chestnut,  and  reaches  75  to  80  feet  in  height. 
Post  oak  ( Q . minor),  still  smaller,  inhabits  the  Gulf  states. 
Bur  oak  ( Q . macrocarpa) , one  of  the  largest  of  the  oaks, 
extends  farthest  west  and  northwest  of  the  eastern  oaks. 
It  is  recommended  for  prairie  planting.  The  red  oak, 
( Q . rubea ) best  in  the  Northeastern  states,  is  found  native 
as  far  west  as  Nebraska.  It  is  90  to  100  feet  in  height,  is 
rather  more  upright  than  the  white  oaks,  the  spread  not  so 
great.  The  pin  oak  ( Q . palustris ) has  proven  itself  well 
adapted  for  transplanting.  Since  it  has  a straight  upright 
trunk  and  symmetrical  body  is  a good  street  and  road  tree, 
at  least  as  far  west  as  Nebraska.  The  live  oaks  ( Q . vir- 
giniana),  (Q.  agrifolia),  (Q.  chrysotepis)  do  well  in  the 
Southern  states  and  in  California.  They  grow  from  50  to 
80  feet  in  height  and  are  evergreen.  Q.  bicolar,  and  the 
scarlet  oak,  Q.  coccinea , are  also  recommended  for  land- 
scape gardening. 

Orange. — See  Citrus  Fruit. 

Osage  Orange. — Used  extensively  for  hedges,  hence  the 
name  sometimes  given  to  it,  “hedge.”  Fruit  resembles  an 
orange.  Long  thorns.  Wood  hard,  but  cheeks  badly  in 
drying ; heart,  a beautiful  orange,  sapwood  yellow.  Makes 
very  durable  fence  posts. 

Palm. — Palms  come  under  the  division  Endogenous,  or 
those  that  increase  from  within.  Yuccas,  cornstalks,  sugar 
cane,  bamboos  are  other  examples  of  endogens.  There  are 
1000  or  more  species  of  palms.  Some  of  them  are  very 
decorative  and  in  regions  where  they  grow,  such  as  South- 
ern California  and  Florida,  may  be  used  very  effectively 
for  road  and  park  embellishment.  The  Washington  palm 
( Washingtonia  filifera ) grows  to  a height  of  30  to  60  feet, 
with  a tuft  of  fan-shaped  leaves  at  the  top.  Old  leaves  die 
and  hang  down  the  tree  like  a thatched  roof.  Sometimes 
these  are  trimmed  off,  leaving  a smooth  stem  nearly  the 
same  size  all  the  way  up.  They  are  very  effective  in  pro- 
ducing rows  or  avenues.  Cabbage  palmetto  ( Sabal  pal- 
metto) also  has  a long  stem  with  a tuft  of  leaves  at  the  top. 
The  date  palm  ( Phoenix  dactylifera)  has  been  grown 


Highway  Esthetics  399 

quite  successfully  in  Arizona.  Several  other  species  are 
available. 

Pecan. — See  Hickory. 

Pepper. — Snow6  states  that  the  California  pepper  tree  or 
Peruvian  mastic  ( Schinus  molle ) was  introduced  into 
California  from  Peru  by  the  early  Spanish  missions.  It  is 
now  a very  popular  street  and  road  tree.  In  general  ap- 
pearance it  suggests  the  drooping  foliage  of  the  weeping 
willow.  It  is  very  irregular  and  grows  to  30  or  50  feet 
high  with  a spread  nearly  as  great.  The  fine  fern-like 
foliage  and  the  long  sprays  of  rose  tinted  berries  make  it 
very  ornamental.  It  gives  off  a pleasant  pungent  peppery 
odor,  and  it  is  claimed  to  have  the  property  of  stopping 
dust,  something  greatly  needed  during  the  summer  season 
in  California. 

Pignut. — One  of  the  Hickories,  q.  v. 

Pine. — Nearly  forty  species  of  pine  are  found  in  the 
United  States.  They  have  high  ornamental  qualities  and 
are  used  extensively  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country. 
Except  on  the  great  plains,  one  or  more  species  are  to  be 
found.  The  different  species  grow  from  mere  dwarfs  to 
immense  trees.  For  park  purposes  the  white  pine  ( Pinus 
strobus),  an  imported  Scotch  pine,  an  imported  Norway 
pine,  and  the  dwarf  mugho  have  been  very  popular.  (The 
sugar  pine  (P.  lambertianu)  grows  in  the  high  regions  of 
California,  is  a fine  tree  and  has  cones  16  to  18  inches  long). 

Plane  Tree. — See  Sycamore. 

Plum. — Is  used  in  thickets  for  screening  and  for  its 
flowers  and  fruit.  Pissard’s  plum  has  been  largely  used  for 
ornamental  planting.  The  American  plum  ( Prunus  ameri- 
cana)  works  well  in  a general  composition  and  is  very 
thrifty. 

Poplar. — The  aspen,  cottonwood,  and  balm  of  Gilead, 
have  already  been  mentioned,  one  more  needs  attention, 
whitewood  or  tulip  tree  ( Liriodendron  tulipitera),  found 
native  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the 
tree  from  which  the  whitewood  of  commerce  is  mostly  ob- 

* Op.  cit. 


400 


Highway  Esthetics 


tained.  It  grows  to  a height  of  90  to  150  feet,  and  to  a 
diameter  of  6 to  12  feet,  with  a corresponding  wide  spread. 
It  has  been  cut  out  until  it  is  not  particularly  common 
any  more.  On  account  of  the  wood  being  soft,  without 
knots,  and  free  from  season  checks,  the  logs  were  utilized 
by  the  Indians  for  “dugout”  boats.  Hough  states  some 
were  large  enough  to  carry  twenty  or  thirty  persons.  This, 
one  of  the  most  useful  of  American  deciduous  trees,  de- 
serves more  liberal  planting. 

Quercus. — See  Oak. 

Redwood. — These  trees  are  native  to  California.  There 
are  two  species — the  mammoth  trees  ( Sequoia  washing- 
tonia)  of  which  a comparatively  few  large  specimens  re- 
main, and  the  common  redwood  ( S . sempervirens ) which  is 
now  being  rapidly  cleared  off  by  lumber  companies.  ‘ ‘ Big 
or  mammoth  trees  have  been  measured  up  to  320  feet  in 
height  and  35  feet  in  diameter”  (Snow).  These  trees  on 
account  of  the  thick  bark,  on  the  large  trees  some  2 feet, 
resist  fires  very  well.  This  is  shown  by  ring  counting  and 
investigations  on  a fallen  tree  by  Professor  Dudley.7  This 
tree  dated  back  to  271  years  before  the  Christian  Era  and 
showed  that  fires  had  occurred  during  the  years  a.d.  245, 
1441,  1580,  and  1797.  The  last  fire  charred  a space  30 
feet  high  and  18  feet  broad,  but  full  recovery  had  been 
made.  The  tree  grows  rapidly.  Snow  states  that  trees  have 
been  known  to  develop  a height  of  80  feet  and  a diameter 
of  16  inches  in  thirty  years.  In  the  Mariposa  grove,  at 
least  partially  under  U.  S.  Forest  Reserve,  the  roads  wind 
about  through  the  great  natural  avenues  formed  by  these 
trees.  On  account  of  the  great  commercial  value  of  red- 
wood the  trees  might,  in  places  where  they  will  grow,  be 
Utilized  for  road  planting  to  encourage  their  growth  by 
others,  and  assist  the  government  in  its  long-time  forest 
plans. 

Sassafras. — Native  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  country  is  a 
good  looking  tree  of  small  size,  rising  to  a height  of  30  to 
50  feet  with  a spread  one-third  as  great.  It  has  the  ehar- 

T Congressional  Keeord,  Senate  Doe.  156,  Vol.  V,  58th  Cong. 


Highway  Esthetics 


401 


acteristic  sassafras  odor,  the  bark  of  the  roots  being  used 
for  medicine.  Will  mass  well.  The  leaves  being  some  lobed 
and  some  not  lobed  lend  a pleasing  variety.  Is  best  in 
naturalistic  planting. 

Sequoia. — See  Redwood. 

Slnagbark. — See  Hickory. 

Spruce. — Perhaps  the  most  important  evergreen  used  in 
landscape  gardening,  sharing  that  position  with  the  pines. 
They  seem  to  enjoy  long  winters  and  short  summers,  hence 
are  well  adapted  to  the  Northern  states.  As  they  have  a 
very  trim  symmetrical  shape  they  can  be  utilized  excep- 
tionally well  in  formal  planting.  They  go  well  also  with 
informal  planting,  lending  a splotch  of  green  on  an  other- 
wise gray  winter  landscape.  When  planted  at  uniform 
spacing  along  an  avenue  they  outline  it  exceedingly  well 
without  very  much  obstruction  to  clear  vision  if  they  are 
not  set  close  together.  The  black  ( Picea  nigra ) and  white 
( Picea  alba ) spruces  rise  from  40  to  100  feet  in  height  with 
a compact  symmetric  conical  shape.  The  black  spruce  has 
the  darker  foliage.  The  Colorado  blue  spruce  (P.  parry- 
ana)  has  been  much  in  vogue  as  an  ornamental  tree,  the 
new  foliage  having  a blue  tinge.  Norway  spruce  (P.  abies) 
has  been  used  very  largely  in  ornamental  cultivation.  The 
cones  are  large,  5 to  7 inches,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  the 
branches  droop  in  artistic  fashion.  The  Sitka  Spruce  (P. 
sichensis ) of  the  Pacific  coast  region  from  Alaska  to 
Northern  California  is  a large  tree  of  great  commercial  im- 
portance, and  will  grow  well  on  low  grounds. 

Sugar  Tree. — See  Maple. 

Sycamore. — The  plane  tree  or  buttonwood  ( Platanus  Oc- 
cident alis)  is  found  in  the  central  and  eastern  portion  of 
the  United  States,  best  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  River 
basins.  It  attains  a height  of  90  to  100  feet,  and  a spread 
of  half  as  much.  The  outer  bark  peels  off,  leaving  the  inner 
exposed  in  white  patches.  Its  straight,  upright  trunk  and 
symmetrical  form  when  allowed  free  growth  ought  to  com- 
mend it  for  road  planting.  The  fruit  are  rough  balls  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  which  dangle  in  the  air  like  ornaments 


402 


Highway  Esthetics 


on  a Christmas  tree.  The  California  sycamore  (P.  race - 
mosa)  is  a smaller  tree  with  a poorer  quality  of  wood,  but  in 
general  appearance  somewhat  the  same. 

Tamarack. — See  Larch. 

Teak. — A tree  of  great  commercial  importance  in  India 
and  Africa.  Has  been  transplanted  to  some  extent  in  the 
Southern  states  but  not  yet  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  con- 
sidered a road  tree. 

Thorn. — Several  members  of  the  Crataegus  family  are 
suitable  for  landscape  planting.  Crataegus  crus-galli,  C. 
tomentosa,  and  C.  coccinea,  native  plants,  and  the  English 
hawthorn,  C.  oxyacantha,  are  all  recommended  where  small 
trees  are  desired. 

Tulip  Tree. — See  Poplar. 

Tupelo. — Same  as  Black  or  Sour  Gum. 

Vlmus. — See  Elm. 

Walnut. — Three  species  of  walnut  are  used  for  road 
trees — black  walnut,  butternut,  and  English  (Persian)  wal- 
nut. The  black  walnut  ( Juglans  nigra)  makes  a handsome 
tree  when  allowed  to  develop  individually,  from  90  to  125 
feet  high,  and  3 to  8 feet  in  diameter  with  a normal  spread 
about  one-half  the  height  of  the  tree.  The  edible  nuts  are 
the  delight  of  the  small  boy  and  as  they  are  usually  gath- 
ered up  from  the  ground  after  they  fall  their  collection 
will  not  injure  the  tree.  The  foliage  is  not  very  dense  and 
it  will  not  take  away  greatly  the  fertility  of  neighboring 
ground  hence,  makes  an  almost  ideal  road  tree.  Since  the 
World  War,  according  to  Reed8  it  has  been  considered  a 
favorite  as  a memorial  tree.  Its  native  habitat  is  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  intermittently  from  the  Atlantic 
to  Nebraska  and  Texas,  but  it  thrives  when  transplanted  to 
the  states  of  Oregon  and  Washington  and  is  being  used  ex- 
tensively by  the  State  of  California  as  a road  tree.  The 
trees  grow  well  from  the  nut  or  they  may  be  transplanted 
from  a nursery  by  cutting  the  tap  root  one  year  ahead  of 
transplanting  as  is  necessary  for  most  nut  trees.  The  but- 
ternut ( J . cinerea),  sometimes  called  white  walnut,  is  a 

B Op.  cit. 


Highway  Esthetics 


403 


very  similar  tree,  a little  smaller  and  has  not  quite  so  ex- 
tensive a native  range.  The  nuts  are  not  round  like  the 
black  walnut,  but  lanceolate  in  shape.  On  the  whole  the 
black  walnut  is  the  better  road  tree.  The  English  walnut 
( J . regia)  is  a native  of  Persia,  but  is  grown  very  largely 
in  orchards  in  California  where  the  annual  crop  of  nuts  is 
more  than  20,000,000  pounds.  Hardy  varieties  suitable  for 
more  severe  climates  are  advertised  but  it  is  not  here 
recommended  that  they  be  planted  where  experience  has 
not  shown  them  to  thrive.  The  tree  itself  is  of  fine  appear- 
ance, and  in  the  warmer  climates  makes  a good  road  tree. 

White  Wood. — A name  given  to  trees  of  various  genera. 
See  Basswood,  Poplar. 

Willow. — Willows  may  be  used  in  decorative  planting  to 
a considerable  extent,  especially  along  banks  to  keep  them 
from  washing  and  other  low  places.  The  black  willow 
( Salix  nigra ) grows  into  an  interesting  tree  with  a rough 
trunk  and  long  pendulous  limbs  and  narrow  lance-shaped 
leaves.  It  resembles  in  general  appearance  the  pepper  trees 
of  California.  It  should  be  used  more  as  a road  tree  across 
low  bottoms.  It  grows  only  40  to  50  feet  high,  but  its 
spread  is  fully  as  much,  giving  it  a rounded,  ball-shaped 
top.  Salix  regatis,  S.  alba,  S.  vitillina  aurea,  and  S.  lauri- 
folia  are  all  recommended  for  decorative  effects. 

Yucca. — Many  of  the  yuccas  are  merely  herbaceous 
plants  with  beautiful  flowers,  but  the  Joshua  tree  ( Yucca 
arbor escens)  grows  to  be  25  to  40  feet  in  height,  and  two 
feet  in  diameter;  it  is  so  very  ungainly  that  it  is  pictur- 
esque. 

Shrubs. — Any  nursery  catalogue  will  give  a wilderness 
of  shrubs  from  which  a good  selection  may  be  made.  But  the 
discerning  road  gardener  will  take  advantage  of  the  native 
plants  and  not  only  preserve  them  but  so  arrange  them 
along  the  roadside  as  to  give  unity  and  variety  to  a com- 
plete stretch  of  road.  We  notice  the  large  trees  because 
their  size  thrust  them  upon  us,  but  we  are  likely  tu  over- 
look the  smaller  plants  or  think  of  them  simply  as  weeds 
to  be  got  rid  of.  The  native  wild  plants  are  all  too  fast 


404 


Highway  Esthetics 


disappearing.  Practically  the  only  places  where  they  may 
now  be  found  are  along  the  highways  and  the  railways,  and 
in  the  farther  forests  where  the  cattle  have  not  yet  trampled 
them  out.  The  road  man  who  has  a love  for  nature  in  his 
heart  will  take  interest  in  preserving  for  future  genera- 
tions, that  they  may  know  what  this  land  looked  like  before 
the  hand  of  man  changed  it  for  better  or  for  worse,  these 
narrow  strips  of  natural  loveliness.  Then  let  the  graceful 
wild  flowers  and  the  sturdy  shrubs  be  a connecting  link  be- 
tween the  sordid  interests  of  man,  symbolized  by  the  hard, 
hard  pavement  and  the  boundless  breadth  of  God’s  good- 
ness exemplified  by  the  abundance  in  the  vast  outspread  of 
fertile  fields  and  the  deep  and  reverent  dignity  of  the 
mighty  forest. 

If  nature’s  wild  flowers  and  shrubs  are  selected  there  will 
be  no  need  of  artificial  fences  and  pergolas  for  support  or 
straw  and  hay  covering  in  the  winter  thus  losing  to  the 
passerby  at  least  one-half  the  pleasure  that  Nature  herself 
can  furnish.  Nature  is  liberal  and  will  furnish  artistic 
pleasure  the  year  around  if  given  a reasonable  opportunity 
to  do  so. 

Alder. — The  green  or  mountain  alder  ( Alnus  virdis), 
3 to  8 feet  tall.  Also  A.  incana,  a little  larger — 8 to  20 
feet.  Adapted  to  damp  soils. 

Barberry. — Plant  only  the  Japanese  barberry  ( Barberis 
thunbergii)  as  the  common  variety  has  been  convicted  of 
carrying  the  spores  of  wheat  rust.  The  barberry  has  slen- 
der graceful  branches  with  fine  bright  green  foliage.  Small 
yellow  flowers  in  June  with  berries  turning  scarlet  and  re- 
maining on  bushes  all  winter.  Colors  up  nicely  after  frost. 
Three  to  5 feet  high. 

Button  Bush,  Cephalanthus  occidentalis. — Hardy  native 
shrub,  4 to  8 feet  high.  Globular  heads  of  white  flowers 
in  the  spring.  Foliage  good. 

Bush  Honeysuckle,  Louicera  tartarica. — Four  to  10  feet. 
Upright  somewhat  spreading  branches;  bright  green  foli- 
age. Flowers  freely  in  May  and  June.  A good  background 
for  smaller  shrubs. 


Highway  Esthetics 


405 


Buck  Brush,  Ceanothus. — North  American  species  of  the 
buckthorn  family.  Yellow  or  blue  flowers  in  terminal 
clusters,  small  shrub. 

Butterfly  Bush,  Buddleia  Variabilis  Magnified. — This  is 
advertised  highly  as  an  ever  bloomer,  beginning  in  early 
spring  and  continuing  until  frost.  Hardy  except  in  ex- 
treme Northern  states. 

Cinque  Foil,  Potentilla  fruticosa. — Three  to  4 feet. 
Hardy  native  shrub.  Bright  yellow  flowers. 

Cherries,  Prunus. — The  native  plums  and  cherries  are 
nearly  all  so  small  as  to  be  called  shrubs.  They  are  worthy 
of  planting  for  ornamental  purpose.  The  sand  cherries  are 
natives  of  the  western  sandhill  regions;  P.  besseyi,  and  P. 
pumila  are  excellent.  For  massing  the  common  choke- 
cherry  is  one  of  the  best  small  trees  known,  the  flowers  are 
beautiful  and  the  fruit  is  excellent  food  for  the  birds. 

Coral  Berry,  Indian  Currant,  Symphoricarpus  vulgaris. 
'—Common  native  shrub,  graceful,  and  holds  through  the 
winter  bright  little  red  berries.  Two  to  3 feet  high. 

Currant. — See  Ribes. 

Dogwood,  Cornus,  several  species. — About  thirty  species 
distributed  over  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Chiefly  shrubs, 
all  hardy  and  ornamental,  handsome  foliage,  stems,  flowers, 
and  fruits.  The  unfortunate  name  “dogwood”  seems  to 
have  been  fastened  upon  these  beautiful  plants  because  a 
decoction  of  the  astringent  bark  was  used  to  wash  mangy 
dogs.9  The  dogwoods  are  mostly  shrubs,  except  three  or 
four  species  in  the  Southern  states.  Some  of  the  smaller 
ones  were  called  Kinnikinick  10  by  the  Indians,  applied  to 
at  least  the  red  osier  ( C . stolonifera)  and  the  silky  cornel 
( C . amomum).  The  highly  colored  red  and  purple  stems 
give  them  a striking  appearance  in  the  winter.  In  the  sum- 
mer the  foliage  bright  green  in  some,  grayish  green  in 
others,  the  white  flowers  and  white  berries  changing  to 

“New  Nature  Library,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  411,  “The  Tree  Book,”  by 
Julia  E.  Rogers.  Doubleday,  Page  & Co.,  New  York,  1914. 

10  This  Indian  word  seems  to  have  been  applied  to  many  plants 
the  leaves  or  bark  of  which  was  used  for  smoking. 


406 


Highway  Esthetics 


blue,  always  prominent  even  after  the  foliage  has  taken  on 
gorgeous  coloring  in  autumn,  makes  them  stand  out  prom- 
inently from  other  bushes  in  their  neighborhood.  By  all 
means  let  the  dog- woods  be  preserved  by  planting  along  not 
too  dry  places  in  our  roadways.  The  species  especially 
desirable  are,  in  addition  to  the  two  mentioned,  C.  baileyi, 
C.  sericea,  C.  mas,  C.  sanguinea,  and  C.  horida. 

Daphne. — D.  mezerum,  a low  shrub,  1 to  3 feet,  with  rose- 
colored  flowers.  D.  cneorum,  a hardy  evergreen  shrub  from 
Europe. 

Deutzia. — Not  quite  hardy  in  the  North.  There  are  sev- 
eral species. 

Elder. — The  common  elder,  Sambacus  canadensis,  is  a 
rapid-growing  plant  with  ornamental  qualities  of  high 
rank.  Its  pinnately  compound  leaves,  its  beautiful  little 
lacy  flowers  which  combine  into  broad  compound  cymes 
giving  them  a very  showy  appearance,  and  its  fruit — small 
berries  in  the  same  showy  cyme  bunches — make  it  worthy 
the  notice  of  road  gardeners.  The  golden  elders  give  bright 
color  but  are  probably  freaky.  In  the  South  the  Mexican 
elder  (S.  mcxicana ) grows  into  a tree  30  feet  high.  Like- 
wise the  pale  elder  ( S . glanca ) on  the  Pacific  coast;  it  is 
said  to  grow  50  feet  tall  in  Oregon.  The  fruit  of  the  elder 
is  edible ; is  used  for  wine  and  pies. 

Exochorda  grandiflora. — A shrub  bearing  white  blossoms 
in  spring. 

Evergreens. — A number  of  the  evergreens  are  dwarf  or 
so  slow  growing  that  they  may  be  very  effectively  used  for 
shrubbing.  The  arbor  vitas  has  been  used  in  hedges.  Pines, 
cedars  and  spruces  are  commonly  used  to  heighten  archi- 
tectural effects. 

Fringe  Tree,  Chionanthus  virginica. — A shrub  or  small 
tree  blossoming  profusely  about  lilac  flowering  time.  Foli- 
age not  particularly  good. 

Flowering  Almond,  Amygdalus  nana. — A dwarf  almond 
cultivated  for  its  flowers,  imported  from  Russia.  Grows 
4 or  5 feet  high  and  in  the  spring  the  slender  stems  are 
almost  wholly  covered  with  the  blossoms. 


Highway  Esthetics 


407 


Flowering  Crab. — Nearly  every  state  has  the  wild  crab- 
apple,  which  is  hardy  and  a most  beautiful  flowering  plant 
when  in  bloom.  The  fruit  is  usually  small  and  sour,  but 
the  early  settlers  found  it  fine  for  jelly,  and  the  wild  tang 
is  delightful.  Crab  trees  have  been  domesticated  so  that 
now  nursery  men  claim  a double  flowering  crab,  extremely 
beautiful  with  fragrant  double  flowers  of  delicate  pink.  The 
tree  is  of  medium  height. 

Golden  Bell,  Forsytliia  viridissima,  and  F.  Fortunei  bear 
great  quantities  of  yellow  flowers  in  early  spring.  At  their 
best  in  the  Eastern  states.  F.  syspensa  is  a weeping  or 
semi-prostrate  form. 

Hercules  Club,  Aralia  spinosa. — Six  to  18  feet  high.  Its 
large  leaves  give  it  a somewhat  tropical  effect. 

Hydrangia  paniculata  grandifiora. — The  shrub  hydran- 
geas furnish  large  showy  white  flowers  in  the  autumn  after 
most  flowers  have  gone.  Very  effective  between  the  greens 
of  the  shrubs  and  trees  and  of  the  grass. 

Indian  Currant. — See  Coral  Berry. 

Japan  Quince,  Pyrus  japonica. — Cultivated  for  its  bril- 
liant scarlet  flowers  in  early  spring. 

Judas  Tree. — See  Red  Bud. 

June  Berry,  Amalanchier  canadensis. — Also  called  serv- 
ice berry  (in  the  Black  Hills,  sarvice  berry)  or  shad  bush. 
A slender  tree,  6 to  20  feet,  with  pretty  flowers  forming 
early  before  the  leaves.  Fruit,  berries,  one-third  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  edible,  extremely  well  liked  by  the  birds.  Two 
other  species,  A.  oboralis  and  A.  alnifolia,  are  equally 
useful  as  ornamental  trees.  The  first  and  second  species 
native  in  Canada  and  North  Central  states ; the  third  west 
of  the  mountains  from  Alaska  to  Oregon. 

Kerria  japonica. — Three  to  8 feet.  A pretty  shrub  with 
slender  twigs  and  yellow  flowers. 

Lilac. — The  common  cultivated  lilacs,  an  important  gar- 
dening shrub,  belongs  to  the  genus  Syringa.  They  may  be 
used  in  clumps  or  in  hedges,  and  require  very  little  care 
except  to  cut  them  back  occasionally  and  clean  out  dead 
wood.  Several  fine  varieties  are  now  on  the  market. 


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Mock  Orange. — See  Syringa. 

Oleaster,  Elaeagnus  Longipes,  E.  argentia  and  E.  hor- 
tensis. — Sometimes  called  wild  Olive.  Said  to  have  edible 
fruits. 

Pea-Tree,  Caragana  frutescens,  a low  shrub  bearing  yel- 
low pea-like  flowers  in  spring.  C.  arborescens,  similar, 
larger. 

Plums. — A number  of  wild  plums  are  very  suitable  for 
road  planting.  In  fact  they  plant  themselves  if  given  an 
opportunity.  Good  for  massing  and  screening.  Primus 
americana  and  P.  maritima  are  especially  recommended. 

Privet. — Hardy  shrubby  hedge  plants.  Best  adapted  for 
carefully  trimmed  low  hedges  2 to  3 feet  high.  Ligustrum 
vulgare  and  L.  ovalifolium  are  both  used.  For  the  North 
Central  states  it  is  recommended  that  “Amoor  Kiver” 
privet  be  used  as  the  “California”  privet  is  not  alto- 
gether hardy.  May  also  be  used  for  massing. 

Raspberry,  Rubus  odoratus. — The  flowering  raspberry 
grows  from  3 to  5 feet  tall  and  may  be  used  in  clumps  for 
small  massing  wherever  brambles  may  be  desired. 

Red  Bud,  Judas  Tree,  Cercis  canadensis. — A very  strik- 
ing small  tree,  from  10  to  30  feet  high,  in  the  early  spring 
when  its  bright  red-purple  flowers  appear  before  the  leaves. 
V ery  noticeable  in  the  bluffs  along  the  large  rivers  where  it 
dots  the  gray  and  greening  hillsides  with  splotches  of  color. 
The  foliage  and  bark  are  also  good,  so  that  it  is  well  worthy 
of  note  for  roadside  planting. 

Ribes  aureum. — Sometimes  called  the  flowering  currant. 
A very  hardy  native,  useful  for  massing.  It  bears  bright 
yellow  flowers,  whose  spicy  fragrance  soon  call  attention  to 
it  when  in  bloom.  Grows  from  4 to  7 feet  high  and  spreads 
rapidly  by  suckers.  Other  species  of  currant  and  goose- 
berries are  valuable  for  massing. 

Rhododendrons. — In  the  Eastern  states  as  far  north  as 
Massachusetts  these  ornamental  plants  are  very  popular. 
As  a road  shrub  it  could  hardly  be  used  on  account  of  the 
thieving  propensities  of  some  people. 

Roses. — The  hardy  flowering  roses  in  massed  groups  will 


Highway  Esthetics 


409 


give  color  and  interest  to  the  roadside.  The  sweet-brier  and 
single  prairie  rose  grow  profusely  in  the  Central  West. 
The  ramblers  may  be  used  to  cover  old  fences.  The  diffi- 
culty with  most  roses  is  a lack  of  artistic  beauty  after  they 
have  ceased  flowering.  A few  have  good  foliage  for  mass- 
ing. In  Oregon  and  other  Coast  states  the  perpetual  bloom- 
ing roses  may  be  utilized. 

Shad  Bush. — See  June  Berry. 

Snowball. — There  are  several  species  and  varieties. 
Viburnum  opulus  and  its  varieties  are  probably  best.  Very 
hardy,  good  foliage,  from  4 to  10  feet  high,  and  when  in 
bloom  in  the  spring  a most  impressive  sight  with  each 
bunch  of  blossoms  looking  like  a truly  big  snowball. 

Snowberry. — Similar  to  the  Indian  currant,  but  has 
white  berries.  A very  hardy  native ; blooming  in  the  late 
summer  its  berries  remain  on  the  bush-like  small  pearls 
until  late  into  the  winter.  Symphoricarpus  racemosus  is 
the  native  shrub  well  worthy  of  cultivation.  Will  make  its 
way  wild  along  the  roads  if  given  a chance. 

Spice  Bush,  Calycanthus  floridus. — A small  shrub  bear- 
ing spicy  flowers. 

Spirea. — The  several  species  are  all  very  artistic  shrubs 
and  worthy  of  the  popularity  which  they  bear.  Can  be  used 
as  a single  bush,  in  hedges  or  in  masses.  The  long  graceful 
bends  of  the  slender  stems,  reminding  one  of  the  streams 
of  water  from  a fountain,  their  beautiful  foliage  and  above 
all  the  foaming  flowers  in  the  spring  time  make  them  the 
horticulturist’s  favorite.  Spirea  van  houttei,  bridal  wreath, 
is  considered  to  be  the  best,  although  S.  prunifolia,  and  S. 
Thunbergii  have  their  admirers.  S.  anthony  waterer  bears 
crimson  flowers. 

Squawberry. — A local  name  sometimes  given  to  Indian 
currant  and  snowberry,  q.  v. 

St.  Johnswort. — A number  of  small  shrubs  of  the  family 
Hypericum.  H.  aureum  has  a height  of  3 feet  and  flour- 
ishes in  the  Southern  and  Western  states.  Wild  it  prefers 
rocky  situations  and  shady  spots.  Yellow  flowers. 

Strawberry  Tree,  Euonymus  atropurpureus. — Also  called 


410 


Highway  Esthetics 


burning  bush.  Hardy  in  the  South.  Bright  ornamental 
fruit  persists  into  the  winter. 

Sumach. — Several  species  of  the  family  Rhus.  They  are 
native  over  a wide  range  and  very  hardy.  The  leaves  are 
pinnately  compound  and  hang  down  from  the  top  of  the 
stem  something  like  a palm  leaf,  giving  a suggestion  of  the 
tropics.  Of  about  120  species  of  Rhus  some  sixteen  are 
found  in  North  America;  all  but  four  are  shrubs.  The 
poison  sumach,  Rhus  vernix,  should  never  be  allowed  to 
grow  along  the  roads  as  touching  the  plant  is  said  to  be  far 
worse  than  handling  poison  ivy.  It  grows  in  wet  or 
swampy  ground  and  the  white  berries  are  in  drooping  clus- 
ters. The  ornamental  sumach,  R.  glabra,  is  the  ordinary 
common  roadway  plant,  with  its  upright  fruit  clusters  per- 
sisting late  into  the  winter  showing  deep  red  against  a 
gray  or  snowy  white  background.  Its  foliage  is  bright  and 
clean  during  the  summer  and  turns  to  rich  colors  in  the 
autumn.  Many  ugly  spots  can  with  very  little  trouble  be 
covered  with  this  harmless  roadside  friend. 

Sweet  Gale,  Myrica  gale,  and  sweet  fern,  M.  asplenifolia, 
are  native  small  shrubs  that  can  be  well  used  in  shrubbery 
border. 

Syringa. — Sometimes  called  mock  orange.  This  shrub 
grows  to  about  8 or  12  feet  high  and  on  account  of  its  many 
white  flowers  in  late  spring  or  early  summer  is  a favorite 
garden  shrub.  In  shape  and  fragrance  the  flowers  resemble 
orange  blossoms.  It  may  be  used  in  clumps,  masses  or  in 
hedges.  It  is  very  satisfactory  because  it  seldom  fails  to 
bloom  and  has  good  appearance  afterward.  Old  wood 
should  be  cut  out.  The  best  species  to  plant  are  Philadel- 
phus  coronarius,  P.  grandiflorus,  and  P.  gordonianus. 

Tamarix  or  Tamarisk. — A shrub  of  the  genus  Tamarix, 
which  has  been  imported  from  the  Mediterranean  regions. 
The  feathery  foliage  reminds  one  of  the  cypress  vine.  The 
species  best  adapted  to  the  United  States  is  T.  gallica.  It 
bears  pink  flowers  in  late  summer.  Is  good  for  covering 
unsightly  banks.  May  be  propagated  from  cuttings.  It 
will  kill  out  in  extreme  winters. 


Highway  Esthetics 


411 


Wegelia,  Diervilla  florida. — Several  varieties.  Good 
blooming  plants  and  usually  hardy.  Rather  poor  foliage. 

White  Alder,  Clethra  alnifolia. — Native  shrub  3 to  10 
feet  high. 

Willow. — Many  of  the  Salix  family  are  shrubby  and 
can  be  used  well  in  low  places.  As  they  come  into  foliage 
early  in  the  spring  they  are  often  used  by  the  landscape 
artist.  The  shining  twigs  and  leaves  lend  variety. 

Yucca. — The  yuccas  may  be  used  effectively  with  formal 
plantings,  or  to  lend  variety  to  naturalesque  schemes. 

Climbing  Plants. — A few  climbing  plants,  perhaps,  will 
be  needed  to  complete  the  plan,  but  they  can  readily  be 
found  in  such  plants  as: 

The  Wild  Grape. — It  will  grow  50  feet  in  a season  and 
cover  the  nakedness  of  an  old  fence  or  stump  with  lovely 
foliage  and  furnish  quantities  of  fruit  for  bird  or  human 
consumption. 

Ampelopsis  quinquefolia. — Another  rapid  grower,  also 
furnishing  beauty  and  bird  food.  A.  veitchii  and  A.  en- 
glemanii  are  fine  for  covering  brick  and  stone  work. 

Bittersweet. — Another  native  climber  showing  beautiful 
red  berries  throughout  the  winter. 

Clematis. — Several  varieties,  some  of  them  native,  per- 
fectly hardy,  such  as  Clematis  virginiana,  not  only  gives  its 
flowers  but  extends  the  pleasure  long  into  the  winter  with 
the  “old  man’s  beard.”  C.  paniculata  is  a favorite,  flow- 
ering profusely  late  in  the  fall. 

Honeysuckle,  Lonicera. — White,  red  and  yellow  are 
found.  L.  sempervirens  will  be  satisfactory  for  roadside 
work. 

Trumpet  Creeper. — A hardy  rapidly  growing  vine  with 
large  trumpet-shaped  red  flowers. 

Wistaria. — A rapid  growing  favorite  with  large  spike  like 
flowers,  violently  purple. 

There  are  a number  of  other  climbers  available.  The  hop 
vine  is  a good  grower,  coming  up  year  after  year  from  the 
root.  The  several  morning  glories,  from  the  old  fashioned 
white  that  was  the  bane  of  the  corn  cultivator  and  the 


412 


Highway  Esthetics 


purple  glory  our  grandmothers  loved  to  the  Japanese  vari- 
ety and  the  moon  flower,  are  all  good  in  place. 

There  is  not  time  to  go  into  the  wealth  of  hardy  peren- 
nial flowers,  and  the  annuals  which  seed  themselves,  nor 
the  grasses  that  may  be  utilized.  The  author  would  refer 
those  who  are  interested  to  works  on  landscape  gardening 
and  horticulture.  For  a brief  discussion  of  “the  principles 
governing  outdoor  art  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their 
application  in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening,”  see 
“Landscape  Gardening,”  by  F.  A.  Waugh,  Orange  Judd 
Company,  New  York. 

Semi-Formal  Style. — In  what  precedes  much  has  been 
said  about  beautifying  the  highway  by  proper  planting. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  nicest  and  most  ornamental  pieces  of 
road  is  that  with  a single  row  of  trees,  uniformly  set  and 
of  uniform  size,  down  each  side;  the  grass  from  the  road- 
way out  neatly  clipped;  and  the  edge  of  the  roadway 
where  it  joins  the  ditch  a distinct  line  parallel  to  the  road 
center  line.  This  is  the  geometrical  or  formal  style  fully 
carried  out.  Hard  maples  set,  say,  75  feet  apart  will  give 
satisfactory  results.  For  long  level  stretches  the  Lombardy 
poplar  will  give  a pleasing  variety  to  the  landscape.  Care- 
ful attention  to  the  small  details  of  keeping  the  road  sur- 
face well  smoothed,  the  side  lines  straight  and  the  grass  and 
weeds  mowed,  will  add  wonderfully  to  the  pleasure  of 
traveling  on  any  highway.  It  is  not  the  intention  to  have 
the  grass  smoothed  with  a lawn  mower — however,  with  the 
horse-drawn  and  motor  driven  mowers  now  available  that 
would  not  be  impossible,  and  the  road  would  look  all  the 
better  for  such  clipping — but  to  have  it  mowed  two  or 
three  times  a season  to  give  the  grass  a chance  to  overcome 
ugly  weeds.  For  this  reason  the  side  ditches  should  be  as 
wide  and  shallow  as  possible  in  order  that  they  might 
grow  grass  on  their  bottoms  and  the  mowing  be  done  with 
a machine. 

Telephone  and  Other  Poles. — The  matter  of  telephone, 
telegraph,  electric  light,  and  other  poles  is  one  that  will 
bother.  Telephone  companies  pay  no  more  and  not  as 


Highway  Esthetics 


413 


much  directly  for  the  use  of  the  highway  as  do  trucks,  but 
upon  the  theory  that  telephone  communication  is  neces- 
sary for  the  transaction  of  community  business  and  for  the 
general  dissemination  of  information,  and  from  the  further 
fact  that  any  charge  made  for  the  use  of  the  right  of  way 
would  be  passed  on  to  the  public  as  a sort  of  indirect  tax, 
they  are  in  most  states  allowed  to  set  their  poles  along  the 
roadside.  The  poles  are  more  or  less  unsightly  and  as 
far  as  the  beauty  of  the  highway  is  concerned  it  would  be 
better  if  they  could  be  removed.  In  cities  and  villages  the 
wires  are  being  carried  in  cables  and  in  many  places  under 
ground. 

“The  Ideal  Section.” — The  so-called  ideal  section  of 
pavement  being  sponsored  by  the  Lincoln  Highway  Asso- 
ciation, located  about  40  miles  south  of  Chicago,  between 
Dyer  and  Schererville,  Lake  County,  Indiana,  is  to  have  all 
pole  lines  and  other  unsightly  features  removed,  that  the 
natural  beauty  of  the  right  of  way  may  be  enhanced.  A 
prominent  landscape  gardener  has  made  extensive  studies 
of  the  land  and  natural  features,  it  being  in  a wooded 
country,  and  has  developed  a plan  of  beautification  which 
will  be  worked  out  along  the  roadside.  The  general  speci- 
fications of  the  “Ideal  Section”  calls  for  40  feet  of  con- 
crete paving,  10  inches  thick  and  reinforced  with  steel  in 
such  a manner  that  it  is  hoped  to  prevent  cracking.  Shoul- 
ders of  5 feet  on  each  side  will  make  the  used  roadway  50 
feet  wide.  It  is  to  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  a 100-foot 
right  of  way,  allowing  25  feet  each  side  for  landscape  gar- 
dening. The  plans  for  the  “Ideal  Section”  follow  the  ad- 
vice of  a highly  trained  technical  committee  of  road  en- 
gineers and  road  enthusiasts,  and  while  they  do  not  claim 
this  represents  the  ultimate  in  highways,  the  Association 
believes  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  crystallize  the  ideas 
of  the  foremost  highway  authorities  of  the  country  into  a 
tangible  expression  of  the  ideal,-  even  though  the  expression 
must  lack  perfection. 

Of  course,  it  is  not  possible  that  all  roads  in  the  country 
can  be  made  “ideal  sections.”  Nor  even  can  telephone 


414 


Highway  Esthetics 


poles  be  banished  from  the  right  of  way.  To  do  this,  no 
matter  how  desirable  it  might  be  from  an  esthetic  stand- 
point, is  impracticable  at  the  present  time.  It  would  not 
only  be  a very  great  hardship  to  the  pole-using  companies 
but  the  expense  of  removal  and  the  cost  of  new  right  of 
way,  or,  if  they  be  forced  under  ground,  the  cost  of  con- 
duits, cables,  and  installation  would  become  a part  of  the 
capital  investment  on  which  dividends  must  be  earned. 
Since  this  would  not  bring  extra  business  it  would  be 
passed  on  to  the  public  by  increased  rates.  As  “it  is  a 
condition  and  not  a theory  that  confronts  us,”  we  must 
make  the  best  of  it  and  design  the  roadside  treatment  with 
the  poles  and  wires  as  a part  of  it. 

Location  of  Poles. — In  prairie  district  where  there  are 
no  trees  to  interfere  it  is  customary  to  set  the  poles 
either  on  the  fence  line  or  half  the  length  of  the  cross- 
arms  into  the  right  of  way.  In  case  there  are  high  hedges, 
trees  or  other  obstructions,  the  poles  are  set  near  the 
side  ditch,  and  trolley  poles  often  on  the  very  edge  of  the 
traveled  roadway.  On  the  whole  it  would  seem  best  in 
most  places  to  set  the  poles  just  outside  of  the  ditch, 
leaving  if  possible  the  extreme  edge  for  the  planting  of 
trees  and  shrubs.  Neither  poles  nor  trees  should  be  set 
on  the  middle  of  the  space  between  the  edge  of  the  ditch 
and  the  right-of-way  boundary.  In  either  ease  the  limbs 
of  the  trees  and  the  wires  will  interfere  and  the  wire- 
men  will  hack  the  trees  and  leave  them  unsightly.  In 
some  states  an  attempt  is  made  to  prevent  this  and  other 
vandalism  by  legal  enactment,  making  it  unlawful  to  cut 
any  trees  on  the  right  of  way  without  express  permission  of 
the  highway  commissioner. 

No  definite  fixed  rule  can  be  made  for  the  position  of  the 
poles.  It  is  a problem  to  make  the  best  of  them.  Also 
having  once  been  set  the  pole  owners  may  refuse  to  reset 
them,  and  it  might  be  difficult  to  get  courts  to  see  the 
necessity  of  doing  so.  Therefore  the  landscape  gardener  will 
have  to  make  his  design  with  reference  to  them  or,  in  co- 
operation with  the  pole  users,  get  them  changed.  In  the 


Highway  Esthetics 


415 


design  natural  condition  should  be  preserved  as  far  as 
possible.  It  might  be  wanted  rightly  to  preserve  large 
trees  standing  near  the  roadway;  this  would  force  poles 
to  the  fence  line.  When  the  poles  are  thus  placed  on  the 
right-of-way  boundary  it  may  be  necessary  for  the  company 
to  secure  an  easement  from  the  owner  of  adjacent  property. 
The  highway  officials,  no  doubt,  under  such  circumstances 
would  cooperate  with  the  company  in  securing  it. 

By  considering  the  poles  as  a part  of  the  formal  or  semi- 
formal  treatment  of  the  roadside,  having  them  arranged 
uniformly  as  to  setting,  distance,  height,  and  length  of 
cross-arms,  they  will  not  appear  very  ugly  and  even  may 
unite  interestingly,  at  least,  with  the  landscape.  Trees 
may  be  trained  and  pruned  so  that  their  branches  will  be 
above  the  wires,  and  shrubs  may  be  grown  below  them. 
Anyway,  the  wires  look  like  business. 

Legislation. — Michigan,  California,  Maryland,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Jersey,  New  York,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania, 
Washington,  and  possibly  other  states  have  legislation 
covering  some  or  all  features  that  have  been  mentioned  for 
improving  and  making  attractive  the  appearance  of  the 
highway.  Other  states  require  property  owners  to  mow 
the  roadside  abutting  their  land  each  year  before  weed 
seeds  ripen,  but  this  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  beautifying 
the  roadway.  The  laws  of  Michigan  provide  for  the  plant- 
ing and  care  of  trees  along  state  trunk  line  roads  and 
national  aid  roads  and  allow  counties  and  smaller  political 
divisions  to  appropriate  funds  for  this  purpose.  The  in- 
jury or  cutting  of  trees  without  authority  from  proper 
road  officials  is  made  a misdemeanor.  Arrangements  are 
also  made  for  the  Agricultural  College  to  furnish  trees  and 
advice  for  roadside  planting. 

The  laws  of  Michigan  contemplate  first  a formal  applica- 
tion by  the  counties  for  roadside  improvement,  then  the 
plans  are  made  by  the  staff  of  the  Agricultural  College. 
The  necessary  trees  and  shrubs  will  be  obtained  from  the 
Agricultural  College,  or  from  local  sources ; nearby  groves 
often  furnishing  all  that  are  necessary,  and  the  owners  are 


416 


Highway  Esthetics 


willing  to  donate  them  for  thinning  often  betters  their  own 
property.  In  other  cases  automobile  clubs  and  other  local 
organizations  pay  for  them. 

Local  Conditions  Determine  Planning. — It  cannot  be 
too  much  emphasized  that  local  conditions  must  determine 
the  planning.  The  soil  and  topography,  the  future  de- 
velopment of  the  roadway  for  the  probable  amount  of  traffic 
it  is  to  carry,  are  all  factors  that  should  be  considered. 
Neither  must  the  planting  be  so  profuse  that  the  roadway 
is  hemmed  in  with  no  lookout.  Vision  of  the  interesting 
points  of  view  as  well  as  vision  along  the  highway  itself 
must  not  be  obstructed.  Long  vistas  of  fields,  of  hills  and 
valleys,  of  mountain  peaks  and  ranges,  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
are  more  interesting  usually  than  all  the  planting  that 
could  be  made  on  the  right  of  way.  Long,  straight  rows  of 
trees  uniformly  spaced,  while  excellent  in  some  places, 
might  if  continued  too  far  become  monotonous.  Fit  the 
planting  to  the  landscape;  possibly  a clump  here  a clump 
there,  or  a small  grove  leading  up  a draw  on  land  unfit 
for  farming  may  be  arranged  in  cooperation  with  the 
owner.  Woodland  should  be  purchased  and  parks  pre- 
pared for  picnics  and  outings.  Massachusetts  has  done 
much  in  this  way.  The  Government  invites  the  public  to 
make  use  of  the  National  Parks  and  National  Forest  Re- 
serves, but  they  are  too  far  away  from  most  people  to  fill 
an  every-day  want,  therefore  a need  of  local  road  beautifica- 
tion and  roadside  parks. 

‘ ‘ Cover  up  ugliness  and  leave  beauty,  ” is  a good  slogan, 
and  it  must  not  be  thought  to  be  inapplicable  upon  our 
home  roads.  But  season  everything  with  reason.  A bold 
rock  jutting  out  may  be  more  interesting  than  the  same 
rock  covered  with  ivy.  Appropriateness  and  fitness  are 
fully  as  essential  as  beauty  alone.  So  a bold  line  setting 
out  clearly  the  safe  boundary  of  the  road  may  be  more 
fitting  than  any  attempt  to  harmonize  the  road  with  its 
surroundings.  Good  judgment  and  a sense  of  artistic  fit- 
ness are  the  key  to  road  esthetics. 


Highway  Esthetics 


417 


SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Boehler,  C.  F.,  “The  Appearance  of  our  Highways,”  Good 
Roads,  Yol.  LXII,  p.  205;  “Selection,  Arrangement  and 
Planting  of  Roadside  Trees,”  Engineering  and  Contracting, 
Voy.  LVIII,  pp.  233-234. 

Bryant,  Ralph  C.,  “Logging,”  John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

Dahe,  L.  L.  and  Brooks,  Henry,  “Trees  of  New  England,” 
Ginn  & Company,  New  York. 

Dudley,  Wm.  R.  Report  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  through  Senator 
0.  H.  Platt,  of  the  record  obtained  by  counting  concentric 
rings  of  a felled  sequoia  tree,  Senate  Document  156,  Yol.  V, 
58th  Congress. 

Fernow,  B.  E.,  “The  Care  of  Tree  in  Lawn,  Street  and  Park,” 
Henry  Holt  & Co.,  New  York. 

Going,  Maud,  “Our  Field  and  Forest  Trees.”  A.  C.  McClurg  & 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Hough,  Romeyn  B.,  “Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern 
U.  S.  and  Canada,  East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.”  Hough, 
Romeyn  B.,  Lowville,  N.  Y. 

Kellogg,  R.  S.,  “The  Lumber  Industry.”  Ronald  Press  Com- 
pany, New  York. 

Lincoln  Highway,  Ideal  Section  of,  Engineering  and  Contract- 
ing, Yol.  LVI,  pp.  537-538. 

Muir,  John,  “Our  National  Parks.”  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
Boston. 

Parkhurst,  H.  E.,  “Trees,  Shrubs  and  Vines  of  the  Northeastern 
United  States.”  Charles  Scribner’s  Sons,  New  York. 

Reed,  C.  A.,  “Useful  Trees  for  Roadside  Planting,”  A paper 
before  the  Michigan  Good  Roads  Association,  1921,  Good 
Roads,  Vol.  LXI,  pp.  173-176. 

Rogers,  Julia,  E.,  “The  Tree  Book,”  in  “New  Nature  Library,” 
Doubleday,  Page  & Co.,  New  York,  1914. 

Sargent,  Charles  Sprague,  “Trees  and  Shrubs.”  Vols.  I and 
II,  4 Parts  to  a Volume.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 

Snow,  C.  H.,  “The  Principal  Species  of  Wood,”  John  Wiley  & 
Sons,  New  York. 

Solotaroff,  William,  “Shade  Trees  in  Towns  and  Cities.” 
John  Wiley  & Sons,  New  York. 

“Trees  for  City  Streets,”  Public  Works,  Vol.  LIII,  p.  63. 

Waugh,  F.  A.,  “Landscape  Gardening,”  Orange  Judd  Company, 

New  York. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


AIDS  AND  ATTRACTIONS  TO  TRAFFIC 
AND  TRAVEL 

It  is  a well-recognized  fact  that  pleasure  riding  con- 
stitutes by  far  the  greater  part  of  automobile  riding.  With 
ten  million  pleasure  cars  and  two  million  trucks  that  is 
obvious,  notwithstanding  every  pleasure  car  is  used  more 
or  less  for  business. 

Assuming  that  the  pleasure  cars  average  3000  miles  per 
year  each,  a conservative  estimate,  and  that  two-thirds  of 
this  is  purely  for  pleasure,1  and  that  the  average  number 
of  passengers  is  2y2,  there  results  the  almost  inconceivable 
number  of  fifty  billion  passenger  miles.  If  one  person  did 
all  that  traveling  he  would  have  to  circle  the  earth  two 
million  times,  or  about  one  circuit  every  quarter  of  a 
minute.  Each  of  the  hundred  million  people  in  the  United 
States,  therefore,  joy  rides  annually  to  the  extent  of  500 
miles,  at  an  expense  of  about  $50,  one-fourth  of  which  is 
for  gasoline  and  oil.  Or,  stating  it  another  way  the  expense 
of  this  pleasure,  recreation,  outing,  release  from  business 
cares,  is  about  $1  per  week  per  person.2 

1 Senator  Arthur  Capper  in  an  address  delivered  before  the  High- 
way Transport  Conference,  New  York,  1920,  said:  “A  recent  inves- 
tigation showed  over  75  per  cent  of  the  Middle  Western  farmers 
bought  their  cars  not  for  pleasure,  but  for  business.”  But  he  did 
not  say  how  they  use  them.  He  did,  in  the  same  address,  say,  ‘‘A 
good  road,  plus  a good  motor  truck,  begets  almost  six  motor  trucks 
in  any  community  and  in  any  locality.”  Emulation  and  rivalry  are 
great  selling  agents. 

2 After  the  above  was  written  there  appeared  in  the  New  York 
Herald  this  statement:  ‘‘This  country  consumed  in  May  (1922),  more 
than  13,000,000  barrels  of  gasoline.  This  is  a matter  of  some  700,000.- 
000  gallons.”  The  article  goes  on  to  calculate  that  in  the  use  of 
this  gasoline  there  was  a travel  of  10,000,000,000  car  miles,  and  ‘‘at 

418 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  419 

This  hardly  seems  to  be  too  much  for  the  returns  received, 
but  if  it  is  it  cannot  be  helped.  The  automobile  is  here.  It 
is  here  to  stay.  It  is  going  to  be  used  more  and  more. 
And  economy  is  not  the  most  stimulating  element  toward 
its  use.  Like  the  telephone,  it  is  rapidly  being  emancipated 
from  the  luxury  class  and  is  establishing  itself  among  the 
necessaries. 

This  being  true,  the  road  must  not  only  be  made  usable 
in  an  economic  sense  but  must  also  cater  to  the  comfort 
and  pleasure  of  the  user.  “Make  business  a pleasure  and 
pleasure  is  business.”  This  means  new  developments  not 
only  in  the  road  construction,  surfacing,  maintenance,  but 
in  the  many  other  things  that  always  follow  improvements. 
The  road  was  made  smooth  and  hard  and  level  because 
larger  loads  at  less  expense  could  be  hauled;  they  were 
widened  and  the  curves  flattened  that  there  might  be  more 
speed,  thus  cutting  down  the  cost  of  transportation.  All 
these  things  came  along  as  a matter  of  economy,  but  at  the 
same  time  they  brought  increased  safety  and  much  pleasure 
to  the  traveler.  Now  the  beautification  of  the  highway, 
discussed  in  the  last  chapter,  while  primarily  for  pleasure, 
has  been  found  to  increase  the  use  of  the  road  and  bring 
money  in  new  ways  to  the  pockets  of  many.  The  beautiful 
and  the  scenic  are  truly  economic  assets  of  great  worth. 
California  will  realize  many  times  over  from  the  tourist 
traffic  alone  the  cost  of  her  wonderful  roads.  The  famous 
Columbia  River  Highway  will  return  to  Oregon  again  and 
again  its  cost  through  tourists  and  other  pleasure  riders 
attracted  to  it  as  bees  to  sweets  by  the  lure  of  its  scenic 
vistas.  Standing  upon  the  streets  of  my  home  city  it  is  an 
unusual  day  if  I do  not  see  license  tags  from  a half  dozen 
states  within  a few  minutes,  sometimes  ranging  from  coast 
to  coast  and  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Gulf. 

Think  what  it  means  to  a community  to  have  all  these 

an  average  of  four  persons  to  the  ear,  1,600,000  individual  motor 
trips  around  the  world  (in  distance)  in  May.”  The  United  States 
Bureau  of  Mines  gives  the  domestic  consumption  of  gasoline  in  the 
United  States  for  1921  as  4,516,012,979  gallons,  an  average  of  only 
about  7,000,000  barrels  per  month. 


420  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

people  pass  through  it.  If  they  have  good  roads  to  travel 
upon,  few  hardships  and  a hospitable  treatment  along  the 
way,  they  are  bound  to  feel  kindly  toward  the  community, 
speak  well  of  it  when  they  go  home.  This,  unintentionally 
perhaps,  suggests  to  others  to  travel  over  the  same  roads, 
and  some,  no  doubt,  will  return  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
up  their  abode  in  a community  so  hospitable  and  up  to 
date  in  its  activities.  If  there  are  factories  that  make 
articles  for  sale  the  traveler  having  seen  their  signs  and 
buildings  as  he  passes  by  feels  a kindly  interest  in  them 
ever  after.  The  manufactories,  the  stores,  wholesale  and 
retail,  the  farms,  and  all  others  will  directly  or  indirectly 
benefit  from  the  travel  and  interchange  of  social  courtesies 
brought  about  by  it. 

The  direct  sale  of  goods  and  supplies,  the  sums  spent  at 
garages  and  hotels  constitute  a very  small  part  of  the  bene- 
fits received  from  those  who  use  the  roads,  yet  it  is  by  no 
means  negligible,  for  “many  mickles  make  a muckle.” 
It  may  be  sordid  to  think  of  the  money  brought  in  by  these 
persons,  and  taken  out  in  almost  equal  amounts  by  our 
own  travelers,  but  the  money  certainly  is  put  into  circula- 
tion and  flows  from  those  who  have  more  to  those  who  have 
less,  balancing,  as  the  rains  do  the  rivers,  the  backward  flow 
through  various  channels  from  those  who  have  less  to  those 
who  have  more.  If  the  transportation  of  commodities  and 
goods  from  market  to  market  over  the  country  can  be 
likened  to  the  life  blood  of  the  human  body,  then  the  pass- 
age of  citizens  from  place  to  place  is  like  the  lymphatic 
circulation  repairing  wastes  due  to  ambition,  greed,  and 
ignorance. 

Ranking’  and  Parking. — Frequently  the  things  which 
will  attract  the  motorist  are  those  which  also  prevent  acci- 
dents, which  cause  vehicles  to  interfere  with  each  other  as 
little  as  possible,  relieve  congestion,  which  make  it  easier 
for  the  stranger  to  find  his  way,  as  well  as  make  it  more 
pleasant  and  more  comfortable  for  passenger  and  driver. 
All  road  regulations  might  be  considered  under  the  head- 
ing of  conveniences  and  comforts,  for  they  all  tend  to  make 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  421 

traveling  more  safe  and  pleasant.  Of  arrangements  of 
this  character  the  first  to  be  discussed  will  be  ranking  and 
parking. 

Ranking  is  defined  by  the  “General  Traffic  Regulations 
of  the  Council  of  National  Defense,  U.  S.  A.”  as  “standing 
vehicles  behind  one  another  parallel  with  the  curb,”  and 
parking  as  “standing  vehicles  along  side  one  another  at  an 
angle  to  curb.”3 

Notwithstanding  these  definitions  by  common  usage  the 
word  ‘ ‘ parking  ’ ’ is  made  to  include  any  method  whatsoever 
of  “standing  automobiles.”  Just  as  the  generic  term 
“man”  includes  both  “man”  and  “woman”  so  the  term 
“parking”  includes  both  “parking”  and  “ranking,”  and 
the  verb  “park”  both  “park”  and  “rank.”  Usage  makes 
this  so  whether  it  be  scientific  or  not. 

People  who  come  to  the  city  or  have  business  in  the  city 
must  have  some  place  to  stand  their  vehicles.  The  ques- 
tion of  where  this  shall  be  is  becoming  one  of  great  im- 
portance, as  the  number  of  vehicles  is  constantly  increasing 
and  the  parking  space  does  not  increase  correspondingly. 
A number  of  cities  are  making  local  regulations  limiting  the 
time  of  parking  in  certain  localities.  Such  limitations  seem 
just,  for  the  reason  that  near  large  office  buildings,  for  in- 
stance, all  available  space  is  appropriated  by  cars  parked 
early  in  the  day  which  remain  there  until  their  owners, 
the  occupants  of  the  offices,  are  ready  to  go  home  at  even- 
ing. Outsiders  and  others  wishing  to  park  near  places 
where  they  desire  to  do  business  find  it  impossible  to  do  so. 
As  a result  they  either  walk  back  several  blocks  or  make 
their  purchase  where  they  can  find  parking  space.  The 
writer  has  frequently  done  the  latter  when  he  really  wanted 
to  patronize  the  store  near  which  he  could  not  park.  The 
stores  at  such  places  actually  lose  considerable  trade  that 
they  are  entitled  to  and  for  which  they  pay  large  rent  or 
other  overhead.  Such  practice  may  in  the  long  run  help 

8 See  also  ‘ ‘ Science  of  Highway  Traffic,  ’ ’ by  William  Phelps  Eno. 
Published  by  himself  and  distributed  by  Brentano ’s,  New  York  City. 
A very  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  road  regulation. 


422  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


the  little  store  farther  out  and  cause  a corresponding  de- 
crease in  property  and  rental  prices. 


"RANKING "STAN DING  VEHICLES  BEHIND  ONE  ANOTHER 
PARALLEL  TO  THE  CURB 


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VEHICLES  RANKED  AT  CURB 


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VEHICLES  RANKED  IN  CENTER 


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TRACKS 


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VEHICLES  RANKED  NEXT  TO  CAR  TRACKS 


"PARKING 'STANDING  VEHICLES  ALONGSIDE  ONE  ANOTHER 
AT  AN  ANGLE  TO  THE  CURB 


VEHICLES  PARKED  AT  CURB 


It 

kfMMMM. 

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VEHICLES  PARKED  ATCENTER 


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VEHICLES  PARKED  NEXT  TO  CAR  TRACKS 


after  eno 


Parking  Spaces  a Convenience  to  Motorists. — The 

figures  above  show  several  methods  for  parking.  Spaces 
in  front  of  fire  hydrants  and  certain  building  en- 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  423 


trances,  at  crossings,  and  street  car  stops  are  usually 
marked  with  no-parking  signs  and  the  curb  painted 
a distinctive  color.  There  may  be  other  places  where 
general  parking  and  unlimited  time  may  be  allowed.  If 
these  spaces  happen  to  be  paved  it  would  be  well  to  have 
the  parking  stalls  marked,  as  more  machines  will  park  when 
this  is  done.  Such  general  parking  places  may  be  alongside 
public  parks,  vacant  lots,  in  wide  streets,  and  elsewhere 
where  parking  will  not  interfere  with  the  flow  of 
traffic.  Special  and  limited  parking  spaces,  such  as  those 
set  aside  for  buses,  cabs,  and  trucks,  or  those  on  which  the 
parking  is  limited  as  to  time  should  be  marked  by  the  city 
with  a standard  sign. 


The  angle  of  parking  depends  upon  the  width  of  street 
and  other  local  conditions.  On  narrow  streets  it  may  have 
to  be  zero  degrees,  that  is,  ranking;  on  others  30°,  45°, 
60°  or  90°.  Since  it  is  best  to  have  machines  head  in,  the 
90°  angle  is  difficult  unless  there  is  ample  turning  space. 
Likewise  in  backing  out  the  same  difficulty  occurs. 

The  following  widths  are  suggested4  for  parking  spaces 
if  in  the  middle  of  the  street,  and  parking  is  at  an  angle  of : 
90°,  the  space  should  be  at  least  15  feet  wide 


Space  required  for  backing  out, 


15 

14 

13 


424  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


When  the  parking  space  is  next  to  the  curb  the  widths  can 
be  reduced  1 foot  each.  For  any  angle  of  stalls  between  90° 
and  45°  the  parking  space  width  must  be  greater  than  15 
feet;  for  60°  about  16  feet.  There  are  streets  where  this 
could  be  allowed  and  more  machines  accommodated  than 


Rotary  scheme  for  traffic  around  a danger  zone  where  streets  meet 
at  right  angles. 


at  45°.  Ranking  spaces  should  be  marked  off  9 feet  wide. 
Some  cities  have  special  rules  that  ranked  cars  shall  stand 
6 feet  apart  to  allow  any  one  to  get  out.  The  stalls,  whether, 
the  parking  is  to  be  on  one  side,  both  sides,  or  in  the  middle, 
should  be  slanted  toward  the  approach  of  traffic. 

There  is  an  advantage  to  parking  in  the  center  of  the 
street  in  that  other  vehicles  may  drive  up  to  the  sidewalk 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  425 

for  loading  or  unloading  passengers.  It  is  objected  to, 
however,  on  the  theory  that  more  space  is  required  for  mid- 
street parking.  Where  possible  parking  spaces  should  be 
paved  with  hard  surfaces,  like  concrete  or  brick.  Vehicles 
parked  upon  asphalt  for  a considerable  time  sink  in,  and 
as  there  is  no  ironing  out  by  traffic  of  these  depressions  the 
pavement  soon  becomes  rough,  retains  rain  and  sprinkling 
water  and  rots. 

An  asphalt  strip  for  driving  and  a concrete  strip  for 
parking  is  ideal,  for  this  separates  distinctly  by  color  the 
two  spaces.  On  fairgrounds  and  picnic  grounds  where 
many  cars  are  to  be  taken  care  of  two  rows  of  parked  cars 
are  headed  together,  then  a lane  and  two  more  rows,  an- 
other, lane,  etc.  Parking  should  usually  be  at  90°  to 
the  lane. 

One  Way  and  Rotary  Traffic. — In  the  crowded  cities 
it  has  been  found  necessary  to  coniine  traffic  to  one 
direction  in  some  of  the  streets.  All  streets  not  wide 
enough  for  two  vehicles  must  of  course  have  one-way 
traffic.  Streets  a little  wider  may  wish  to  park  or  rank 
cars  along  one  side  and  have  one-way  traffic  on  the  other. 
With  parallel  streets  near  together,  wide  streets  even,  may 
be  used  advantageously  as  one-way  streets  with  two  or  more 
lines  of  vehicles. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  public  clear  and  distinct  signs 
should  be  placed  at  every  entrance  to  a one-way  street. 
Of  these  more  will  be  said  further  on. 

At  intersections  there  are  two  methods  of  procedure: 
The  block  and  the  rotary.  The  block  requires  a traffic 
officer  who  stops  for  a short  time  the  traffic  in  one  direction 
to  allow  the  other  to  pass,  then  in  the  other.  Even  the 
short  spaces  of  time  between  his  whistle  blasts  are  produc- 
tive of  much  congestion.  To  alleviate  this  condition  a 
movement  about  the  center  of  the  intersection  in  one 
direction  has  been  devised.  On  the  intersection  of  streets 
where  there  are  small  parks,  monuments  or  safety  zones 
the  rotary  method  is  most  successful.  The  movement 
around  is  such  as  to  leave  the  center  of  the  intersection, 


426  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

the  park  or  monument,  on  the  left,  thus  avoiding  all  left- 
hand  turns.  In  establishing  one-way  streets  attempts  are 
usually  made  to  avoid  left-hand  turns  whenever  possible. 
The  figures  on  pp.  424  and  426  show  sketch  plans  for 
rotary  service.  When  there  are  street-car  tracks  or  other 
local  obstructions  slight  changes  may  have  to  be  made. 
Note  only  two  full  passing  places  for  vehicles,  A,  and 
as  only  a part  of  the  traffic  will  want  to  cross  con- 
gestion and  danger  are  largely  eliminated.  There  may  be 
one,  two,  or  more  lines  of  traffic  at  B;  depending  on  the 


Rotary  scheme  for  traffic  around  a danger  zone  where  streets  meet 
at  an  acute  angle.  Right  angle  passing  at  A.  One,  two  or 
more  lines  of  traffic  depending  on  width  of  street  at  B. 


width  of  the  street.  This  scheme,  according  to  Eno,  is  so 
practical  that  after  it  was  put  into  use  in  New  York  in 

1908,  it  was  adopted  the  same  year  at  Boston,  by  Paris  in 

1909,  by  Buenos  Aires  in  1910,  and  now  is  in  use  in  many 
cities  throughout  the  world. 

Taking  Care  of  Opera  House  Traffic. — Special  arrange- 
ment must  be  made  in  large  cities  in  front  of  opera  houses 
and  other  places  where  there  are  large  gatherings.5  A 
5 See  Eno,  op.  cit.,  p.  53. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  427 


most  difficult  problem  occurs  in  New  York  city  between 
38th  and  41st  streets,  where  several  large  theaters,  opera 
houses,  and  halls  are  located.  Mr.  Eno  suggests  that  a 
numbered  check  be  given  to  the  owner  of  each  vehicle  with 
a duplicate  to  the  driver  on  which  are  printed  directions  for 
lining  up  to  be  followed  by  the  driver.  As  each  vehicle 
comes  along  the  line  the  number  is  flashed  on  a board  con- 
tinuously. Or,  a roller  blackboard  could  be  used  and  as 
each  number  is  rolled  out  of  sight  at  the  top  a new  number 
is  written  in  at  the  bottom.  As  there  might  be  several  lines, 
at  least  one  for  each  entrance,  there  would  be  several 
boards  and  the  owner’s  ticket  would  direct  which  one  he  is 
to  watch. 

Public  Garages. — As  it  was  found  necessary  to  go  up 
into  the  air  in  large  cities  to  accommodate  the  demands  for 
room  for  offices,  stores,  and  other  businesses,  so  now  some 
cities  are  preparing  to  build  public  garages  of  the  sky- 
scraper type  for  its  automobiles.  If  press  items  are  correct 
Chicago  is  about  to  make  a trial  of  the  sky-scraping  garage 
near  the  heart  of  the  retail  district  for  the  accommodation 
of  automobilists  who  wish  to  drive  to  business,  leaving  the 
streets  where  they  now  park  their  cars  free  for  transient 
motor  cars. 

There  is  nothing  particularly  new  in  a sky-scraper 
garage.  They  have  been  used  for  private  and  for  hire  pur- 
poses for  some  time.  The  novelty  lies  in  a municipality 
considering  itself  obligated  to  furnish  parking  places  for 
automobiles.  But  why  not?  The  public  provides,  now, 
roads  for  them  to  travel  upon,  and  parking  places  upon  the 
ground  level.  If  extension  to  this  space  is  made  by  piling 
one  parking  place  on  top  of  another  instead  of  one  beside 
another,  what  is  the  difference?  It  is  presumed  that  a 
nominal  fee  would  be  charged  and  that  outside  parking 
places  would  be  limited  in  time  of  occupation  by  any  par- 
ticular car. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  several-story  garages  is  the 
manner  in  which  the  cars  are  taken  to  the  upper  floors — 
whether  by  elevator  propelled  from  some  outside  source 


428  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

or  whether  they  are  driven  up  inclined  planes  by  their 
own  power.  The  press  notice  regarding  the  Chicago 
scheme  indicates  the  car  will  be  driven  up  to  its  stall  in 
any  one  of  the  ten  stories,  and  when  ready  to  go  home  the 
driver  will  ascend  to  his  car  and  drive  it  down  the  exit 
ramp  and  go  on  his  way.  It  will  be  an  interesting  experi- 
ment. If  it  succeeds  central  garages  will  be  built  in  even 
the  smaller  cities. 

The  elevator  garages  are  quite  common.  The  car  is 
driven  onto  an  elevator  large  enough  to  handle  it  and  taken 
to  any  story  desired,  then  driven  off  to  its  stall.  A reverse 
operation  brings  it  back  down.  The  elevator  will  probably 
be  run  by  electric  power.  The  present  cost  of  installing  a 
bus  elevator  6 is  practically  as  follows:  First  cost,  $7500; 
repairs  and  depreciation,  per  annum,  $500 ; cost  of 
current,  $750;  interest  on  investment  at  6 per  cent,  $450; 
assuming  one  operator,  salary  $1200.  Total  yearly  charge 
$2900.  These  figures  are  claimed  to  be  very  conservative, 
as  some  run  as  high  as  $5000.  The  possibility  of  a break 
of  the  moving  machinery  tying  up  the  rolling  stock  will 
make  a second  elevator  imperative,  the  annual  charges 
would  be,  assuming  no  extra  man  to  be  required,  $1700; 
making  altogether  an  annual  charge  for  elevators  of  $4600, 
and  the  total  cost  of  the  installment,  $15,000. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  claimed  that  when  the  ramps 
are  constructed  with  the  building  the  extra  cost  is  slight, 
being  little  more  than  that  of  the  floors  which  would  be 
necessary  to  cover  their  spaces  were  they  not  put  in. 
After  being  put  in  they  are  claimed  to  be  superior  be- 
cause there  are  no  moving  parts  to  break  down,  there  is 
no  maintenance  expense,  no  salaried  operators,  and  they 
provide  quicker  service,  as  several  machines  may  be  run 
up  or  down  in  the  same  time  it  would  take  to  transport 
one  on  an  elevator. 

The  ramps  are  said  to  take  up  more  space  than  the 
elevators,  but  the  claim  is  made  that  by  dividing  the 

0 “ A Comparison  of  Ramp  and  Elevator  Type  Garages,  ’ ’ by  Harold 
F.  Blanchard,  Bus  Transportation,  June,  1922. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  429 

garage  into  two  parts  and  having  the  floors  in  one  part 
come  approximately  half  way  between  those  in  the  other 
part,  much  shorter  ramps  may  be  used,  and  the  space  taken 
up  is  not  so  very  much  greater  than  would  be  required  for 
elevators.  The  ramps  are  made  about  16  feet  wide,  and  the 
grade  approximately  15  per  cent. 

Terminal  Stations. — For  the  purpose  of  accommodating 
patrons  bus  and  express  terminal  stations  are  being  in- 
stalled. So  far  these  have  been  established  and  financed  by 
private  companies.  Where  several  bus  lines  or  express  lines 
radiate  from  a city  a union  depot  may  be  expected  not  only 
to  pay,  but  greatly  to  convenience  the  public.  Small  hotels 
and  out-of-the-way  places  are  ordinarily  used  when  there 
is  no  central  station.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  these  in  mind, 
and  as  they  use  the  telephones  of  the  hotels,  restaurants, 
shops,  etc.,  that  they  occupy  for  headquarters  it  is  difficult 
for  everybody  to  remember  where  they  are  located  and  find 
them  when  needed.  Cooperation  between  the  hotel  em- 
ployees and  the  bus  lines  for  the  giving  of  patrons  infor- 
mation relative  to  schedules,  fares,  rates,  etc.,  is  not  always 
satisfactory. 

The  organization  of  a stock  company  with  bus  lines,  ex- 
press lines,  and  merchants  as  stockholders  for  the  purpose 
of  building  and  operating  a terminal  depot  may  be  formed. 
It  will  be  necessary  that  the  merchants  be  brought  to  see 
the  financial  returns  that  will  come  to  them  from  the 
passengers  which  will  be  brought  to  the  city  every  forenoon, 
allowed  time  to  shop  and  return  home  in  the  afternoon ; and 
that  the  number  of  passengers  will  be  increased  if  con- 
venient and  accommodating  terminal  facilities  are  at  hand. 

Experience  at  Omaha  shows  that  a large  percentage,  85, 
of  the  passengers  carried  by  the  buses  are  residents  along 
the  routes  and  not  commercial  travelers,  and  are  therefore 
potential  customers.  Many  of  these  people  when  making 
their  purchases  ask  that  the  purchased  articles  be  delivered 
to  the  central  depot  in  time  to  meet  a particular  bus.  The 
purchaser  is  given  a check  upon  the  surrender  of  which  he 
receives  his  package  at  the  depot.  Of  course  the  more 


430  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

central  the  location  of  the  depot  may  be  the  better  the  ac- 
commodation to  the  passengers.  On  the  other  hand  the  rent 
of  the  station  may  and  probably  will  increase  as  it  is 
brought  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  retail  district.  Any- 
way it  should  be  within  walking  distance  of  the  principal 
retail  stores. 

The  main  costs  of  such  a station  will  be  rent,  light,  heat, 
water,  taxes,  insurance,  upkeep,  and  the  personal  service  of 
an  agent  and  janitor.  At  Omaha  seven  bus  lines  and 
eighteen  merchants  entered  into  an  arrangement  whereby 
the  merchants  were  to  guarantee  the  rent  while  the  bus 
operators  were  to  furnish,  maintain,  and  operate  the  ter- 
minal. The  rent  was  $200  per  month.  For  current  ex- 
penses each  member  pays  $2  a month  dues  and  a service 
charge  of  $15  a month  in  advance  for  each  scheduled  in- 
and-out  daily  trip.  Thus  the  Omaha-Weeping  Water 
line  with  one  in-and-out  bus  would  pay  about  50  cents  a 
day;  Omaha-Lincoln  line  with  two  buses  each  way,  $1  a 
day ; and  the  Omalia-Fremont  line  with  four  buses  in-and- 
out  every  day,  $2.  A small  additional  income  is  received 
from  a cigar,  candy,  and  miscellaneous  sales  concession,  it 
being  12^2  per  cent  of  the  gross  sales  less  $7  a week  which 
the  association  pays  toward  the  salary  of  the  clerk  who  acts 
as  their  information  and  ticket  agent.  A limited  free 
checking  service  is  maintained  for  the  accommodation  of 
passengers  and  shoppers.  A colored  porter  presides  over 
a shoe-shine  stand  and  calls  the  departure  of  buses  and 
assists  the  passengers  with  their  baggage.  He  also  serves  as 
janitor.  Special  courtesy  to  patrons  is  maintained  as  a 
means  of  increasing  business.  The  depot  has  36x80  feet 
space  and  is  divided  into  a general  waiting  room  and  office, 
a ladies’  rest-room,  a smoking  room,  and  space  for  baggage. 

Here  is  a joint  terminal  for  a few  bus  lines  running 
out  of  one  of  the  smaller  large  cities  of  the  country  into 
an  agricultural  community  with  unpaved  but  excellent 
earth  roads.  The  operators  feel  that  even  though  small  it 
has  proven  its  worth,  as  they  have  a definite  business 
center  where  patrons  can  get  information  about  schedules 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  431 

and  buses  and  find  comfort  while  waiting.  It  also  makes 
for  an  esprit  de  corps  among  the  several  bus  companies 
which  very  frequently  loan  buses  to  each  other  in  cases  of 
emergency.  The  compensation  in  such  cases  is  15  cents 
per  mile  if  the  borrower  furnishes  gasoline,  oil  and  driver, 
or  22  cents  a mile  if  these  are  furnished  by  the  owner. 
In  case  one  line  does  any  work  for  another  the  basis  of  pay 
is  cost  plus  10  per  cent. 

It  is  considered  that  the  bus  lines  are  themselves  a con- 
venience to  the  public  as  their  schedules  and  routes  are 
planned  to  give  service  where  the  railroads  do  not.  For 
example,  a resident  of  Wahoo  wishing  to  go  to  Omaha  by 
train  leaves  at  11 :15  a.m.,  there  being  only  one  train  a day, 
arrives  at  Omaha  at  1 :15  p.m.  ; but  must  wait  until  the 
next  day  to  return,  as  the  only  train  leaves  Omaha  at  12.41 
p.m.  ; arriving  at  Wahoo  at  2:31  p.m.  The  citizen  has, 
therefore,  spent  practically  two  days  to  make  the  trip.  By 
bus  he  can  make  the  round  trip  the  same  day — leave  Wahoo 
9 :10  a.m.  ; arrive  Omaha  11 :30  a.m.  leave  Omaha  2 :00  p.m. 
and  arrive  back  home  at  4 :20  p.m.  ; or  he  can  have  still 
more  time  in  the  city  by  leaving  at  5 :10  and  arriving  home 
at  7 :30  p.m. 

A number  of  instances  like  the  above  could  be  cited.  On 
the  contrary  one  of  the  bus  lines  runs  between  Omaha  and 
Lincoln,  passing  through  the  same  towns  that  are  already 
well  served  by  several  trains  per  day.  The  time  of  mak- 
ing the  trip  from  Omaha  to  Lincoln  by  bus  is  about  one 
hour  longer  than  by  train.  There  seems  little  use  for  such 
a bus  line  except  to  pick  up  passengers  between  train 
stations. 

Much  more  elaborate  terminal  stations  have  been  estab- 
lished in  other  cities,  for  example  Indianapolis,  Indiana, 
and  Portland,  Oregon.  A Minneapolis  terminal  to  accom- 
modate 100  buses  a day  has  been  opened  and  the  company 
expects  ultimately  to  spend  $100,000  to  create  an  adequate 
terminal. 

At  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  a city  of  40,000  people,  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  learning  that  an  ordinance  had  been 


432  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

introduced  in  the  Common  Council  prohibiting  the  parking 
of  motor  buses  on  the  streets,  evolved  the  idea  of  a central 
waiting  room  for  the  convenience  of  all  passengers  from 
the  rural  districts,  the  establishment  of  a definite  bus 
schedule  and  the  installation  of  a checking  department.7 
After  a year’s  operation  the  merchants  were  extremely  well 
pleased  with  results.  The  bus  drivers  were  invited  to  use 
the  accommodations  provided  at  the  entire  expense  of  the 
merchants,  of  a little  less  than  $1500  a year.  Rental  is  at 
the  rate  of  $50  and  janitor  service  $12  a month.  The  room 
is  steam  heated  and  made  as  comfortable  and  cozy  as 
possible,  so  that  women  and  children  find  it  a pleasure  to 
wait  there.  From  150  to  300  persons  use  the  bus  terminal 
daily.  The  bus  drivers  have  formed  an  association  and 
taken  over  the  care  of  the  building,  as  they  believe  this  one 
of  the  best  things  ever  put  forward  for  the  development  of 
their  own  business. 

As  an  example  of  how  it  works  this  is  given : 

A lady  in  Red  Hook  desires  one  of  the  Poughkeepsie  merchants 
to  send  her  certain  goods,  she  simply  telephones  her  order  to  the 
Poughkeepsie  merchant,  who  then  consults  his  time  table  regard- 
ing buses  operating  in  that  direction.  He  next  selects  the  mer- 
chandise; makes  up  his  package  and  his  boy  takes  it  to  the  motor 
bus  terminal,  where  the  attendant  in  charge  receipts  for  the 
package.  This  bundle  is  then  put  by  the  attendant  in  the  proper 
bin  and  the  right  driver  takes  it  just  previous  to  leaving  the  sta- 
tion. The  driver  delivers  the  package  the  same  as  the  parcel 
post  man  would,  with  promptness  and  dispatch.  lSTo  charge  is 
made  by  the  attendant  for  taking  the  package  but  a charge  of 
10  to  50  cents  is  put  on  the  parcel  by  the  bus  driver,  which  he 
collects  from  the  recipient  of  the  package,  or  it  is  prepaid  as  the 
merchant  prefers. 

It  is  said  there  has  been  no  loss  by  theft.  The  drivers 
each  carry  a key  to  the  Bus  Terminal  Station  which  is 
opened  by  the  first  driver  to  arrive  about  6 :30  a.m.  and 
closed  by  the  last  to  leave  about  11 :00  o’clock  at  night. 

’“A  Motorized  City,”  by  Alfred  Jenkins,  Secretary  of,  and  pub- 
lished by,  the  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  7 East 
42d  Street,  New  York. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  433 

This  is  not  a freight -trucking  depot,  only  packages  being 
handled.  From  the  customers  which  the  buses  have 
brought  it  is  estimated  the  trade  in  the  first  year  was  over 
a half  million  dollars,  a large  part  of  which  is  partly  trace- 
able to  the  courtesy  and  convenience  rendered  to  out-of- 
town  patrons  by  the  establishment  of  the  depot. 

Gas,  Air,  and  Water  Stations. — Another  business  of 
great  importance  that  has  followed  the  increased  use  of 
motor  cars  is  that  of  the  sale  of  gasoline  and  oil.  Of 
course  there  are  the  large  manufacturing  and  wholesale 
companies;  of  those  it  is  not  the  intention  here  to  speak, 
but  of  the  retailer  who  is  endeavoring  to  accommodate  the 
motoring  public. 

There  is  no  city  of  any  size  now  but  what  is  supplied 
with  one  or  more  filling  stations.  Much  money  is  being 
spent  on  the  stations  to  make  them  convenient  and  attrac- 
tive to  the  motorist.  The  modern  filling  station  consists 
of  the  necessary  storage  tanks,  usually  placed  under 
ground,  for  gasoline  and  oil,  and  the  pumps  for  measuring 
and  forcing  the  “gas”  into  the  tank  of  the  motor,  with 
other  pumps  or  facilities  for  care  of  oil.  Then  there  is  the 
building  containing  an  office,  a storeroom  for  oil  and  sup- 
plies, rest  and  toilet  rooms  for  women,  and  possibly  also 
for  men.  There  is  usually  a marquise  extending  out  over 
the  place  where  automobiles  stop  for  filling,  to  keep  off  rain 
and  sun  from  the  pumps  and  also  from  driver  or  passenger 
in  case  he  or  they  desire  to  get  out  of  the  car  for  any  pur- 
pose. Water  and  air  are  available  at  these  stations  and  are 
looked  after  by  attendants  if  desired.  There  are  also  pits 
where  crank  cases  may  be  rapidly  drained  and  refilled. 
While  these  accommodations  are  for  the  purpose  of  attract- 
ing trade,  the  very  fact  that  they  do,  shows  them  to  be 
real  conveniences. 

Of  course,  there  are  also  those  things  which  the  auto- 
mobile dealer  calls  “service.”  That  is  places  where  may 
be  purchased  and  repaired  broken  parts,  where  batteries 
may  be  filled  with  distilled  water,  and  so  on.  Usually 
water,  either  fresh  or  distilled,  is  free,  but  in  some  places 


434  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

in  the  “deserts”  out  West  it  has  to  be  hauled  miles  and  a 
cost  charge  is  made. 

Named  and  Numbered  Roads. — For  a number  of  years 
road  enthusiasts,  automobile  clubs,  and  chambers  of  com- 
merce have  been  selecting  and  marking  main  lines  of 
road  across  the  country  or  through  their  particular  cities. 
Some  of  these  roads  such  as  the  Lincoln  Highway,  the  Santa 
Fe  and  the  Yellowstone  Trails  extend  across  the  continent 
from  coast  to  coast ; or  north  to  south  as  the  Dixie,  the 
Jefferson,  and  the  Jackson  Highway.  There  are  very  many 
of  these  volunteer  organizations;  they  attempt  to  secure 
the  improvement  of  highways,  ranging  in  length  from 
transcontinental  routes  to  short  county  lines,  by  bringing 
influence  to  bear  on  road  officials  and  creating  in  the  minds 
of  the  public  generally  an  interest  for  better  roads.  Some 
states  like  Iowa  and  Nebraska  passed  laws  enabling  an 
association  promoting  any  route  to  register  it  together  with 
the  marker  that  is  to  be  used,  providing  penalties  for  in- 
juring or  defacing  any  sign  board,  and  making  it  unlawful 
for  others  to  use  the  name  or  marker  design  on  any  other 
road.  It  is  said  over  a hundred  routes  were  marked  in 
Iowa,  fifty  in  Illinois,  and  other  states  somewhat  pro- 
portionately. 

Opposition  has  been  offered  on  the  theory  that  it  is  the 
State’s  business  to  mark  and  maintain  signs  along  roads. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  since  the  General  Government 
has  selected  a system  of  national  roads  and  since  these  must 
be  by  law  continuous,  that  they  be  numbered  continuously 
by  the  same  number.  For  example  the  transcontinental 
road  farthest  north  should  be  numbered  1,  the  next  con- 
tinental road,  3,  the  next,  5,  and  so  on.  That  the  roads 
running  north  and  south  beginning  on  the  east  be 
numbered  with  even  numbers.  Several  of  the  New  Eng- 
land states  have  already  agreed  to  a common  number  or 
name  for  roads  running  through  them.  The  point  is  that 
when  a road  has  been  marked  a tourist  may  travel  clear 
across  the  continent  on  the  same  number  and  would  not 
have  to  look  up  a new  number  or  name  when  he  crossed  a 


ROAD 

CLOSED 

BY  ORDER  OF— 

CLIFFORD  OLDER,  chief  highway ehgiheer 

VIOLATORS  SUBJECT  TO  ARREST 
PENALTY:  F,'‘e'  SSTSSST"*1 
OPED  ONLY  TO  RESIDENT  AND  CONTRACTOR'S  TRAFFIC 

FOLLOW  MARKED  DETOUR 


CiflJMr  la  blip  Win  Irtlcili  Eud  lss)la|  et  Oilier  SFrlsf  lilup  lid  Bind  lea 


Fig.  2. — “Road  Closed”  Sign  as  Furnished 
by  Department.  The  Engineer  in  Charge 
Inserts  Routing  of  Detour  and  Mileage  in  the 
Space  Under  the  Words  “Follow  Marked 
Detour.” 


SLOW 

BARRICADE -400FT 

Fig.  1. — Standard  Warning  Sign  for  Barricades. 


DETOUR  FOR  ROUTE. 


^od  ^noj.aa 


Fig.  3. — Standard  Detour  Sign  as  Furnished 
by  Department.  The  Engineer  in  Charge 
Prints  on  the  Sign  the  Route  Number,  Name 
of  Trail,  its  Emblem  if  the  Road  has  a Name 
and  Emblem,  the  Next  Town  and  County 
Seat  or  Main  City  cn  the  Road. 


Fig.  4. — Map  Showing  Position  of  Barricade 
and  Detour  Signs. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  435 

state  line.  Also  when  once  made  public  a map  of  the 
roads  would  be  good  next  year  or  the  year  after,  and  the 
traveler  need  not  fear  its  having  been  changed.  It  might 
be  possible  that  places  would  be  located  by  certain  roads 
as  they  were  once  by  rivers.  In  the  practical  work  of 
drafting,  numbers  are  more  easily  placed  on  the  map  than 
are  names. 

Marks,  Signs  and  Guides. — Whether  or  not  the  Govern- 
ment will  take  over  the  numbering  of  through  roads  the 
states  and  volunteer  associations  will  no  doubt  continue 
marking.  The  marks  are  very  comforting  to  a person 
traveling  on  an  unknown  road,  and  few  there  are  who  do 
not  at  sometime  travel  unknown  paths.  Not  only  does  it 
keep  him  going  along  the  right  way  but  signs  giving 
mileage  to  the  next  town  are  always  watched  for  anxiously. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  most  effective  methods  of 
marking  a road  is  to  paint  a band  of  distinguishing  color 
around  the  telephone  poles  along  the  way.  In  addition  to 
the  color  band  a letter  or  insignia  may  be  used.  The  Lincoln 
Highway  uses  a red  strip  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
white  band  and  a blue  L.  The  Detroit,  Lincoln,  Denver 
route  uses  black  strips  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  white 
band  and  black  monogram  made  up  of  the  letters  D.  L.  D. 
The  state  of  Nebraska  erects  markers  showing  the  number 
of  the  road  in  its  state  system  and  the  number  of  the  mile 
on  the  road.  This  is  partly  for  the  convenience  of  travelers 
and  partly  to  assist  in  systematic  filing  of  records  in  the 
office.  In  case  it  is  necessary  to  make  a special  report  the 
patrolman  can  give  the  location  almost  exactly,  for 
example,  “Road  14,  mile  32,  north  quarter,  washout,”  or 
more  simply,  “14,  32,  N Q,  washout.”  This  is  very 
definite.  The  state  of  Wisconsin  uses  a triangle  as  an  in- 
signia in  which  is  placed  the  legend  “State  Trunk  High- 
way,” the  number  of  the  highway  and  the  abbreviation 
Wis. 

Several  of  the  states  have  adopted  the  method  of  setting 
quite  large  signs  alongside  the  roadway  and  forbid  the 
placing  of  advertising  signs,  even  though  they  give 


436  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

road  information,  or  signs  by  local  volunteer  associations. 
This  would  seem  to  be  going  a little  too  far  for  volunteer 
associations  have  done  much  for  better  road  construction 
in  this  country  as  well  as  to  give  publicity  to  the  advan- 
tages of  traveling  over  the  particular  road  in  wffiich  they 
are  interested.  The  influences  which  they  have  been  able 
to  bring  upon  local  road  officers  by  various  means  has  had 
a wonderful  effect  in  keeping  in  good  condition  the  marked 
road  and  by  emulation  other  roads  joining  with  it.  The 
most  of  these  associations  have  contented  themselves  with 
marking  a route  from  one  terminal  to  another.  They  have 
not  asked  for  a special  kind  of  surfacing.  They  have  aided 
by  advice  and  perhaps  occasionally  assisted  to  put  in  a 
sample  mile  of  good  road.  For  example  the  Lincoln  High- 
way is  at  the  present  time  interesting  itself  in  financing 
and  constructing  an  “ideal  section”  of  road  in  Indiana. 
(See  Chapter  XII,  p.  413.)  On  the  whole  it  is  the  belief 
of  the  writer  that  the  good  done  by  these  associations  in- 
ures to  the  great  benefit  of  the  general  public  and  until  a 
comprehensive  plan  can  be  agreed  upon  by  all  the  states 
they  should  be  allowed  to  continue  their  work. 

Distance  and  Direction  Signs. — Direction  signs  are  such 
as  point  out  the  direction  which  a traveler  must  take  to 
keep  on  a particular  route.  Distance  signs  also  give  in- 
formation as  to  distances  from  the  sign  to  particular  places. 
These  two  classes  are  often  combined.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  warning  and  detour  signs  which  may  also  be 
direction  signs. 

Mile  posts  are  not  new.  It  was  the  custom  to  plant  them 
along  the  old  Roman  roads.  It  has  already  been  men- 
tioned that  board  markers  are  frequently  placed  along  the 
state  numbered  highways.  It  would  be  better  to  have  well- 
designed  cut  stones  or  concrete  posts  set  at  even  miles,  and, 
perhaps,  also  at  Y2  or  x/±  mile  points  as  well.  The  post 
should  bear  the  number  or  insignia  of  the  highway  and 
the  mile  number,  measured  from  some  particular  terminal. 
Wisconsin  uses  a triangle  as  an  insignia ; other  states  use 
an  outline  map  of  the  state,  which  is  usually  not  so  simple 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  437 


and  requires  larger  sign  boards  and  hence  greater  expense, 
and  is  not  so  symmetrical  and  neat  looking.  The  abbrevia- 
tion of  the  state  name  is  sufficient.  This  is  to  be  placed 
on  the  side  facing  the  road.  It  has  been  suggested  that  on 
the  side  toward  the  approaching  traveler  may  be  placed  the 
name  of  the  next  village,  town  or  city  in  that  direction  with 
the  distance  in  miles.  On  the  other  side  visible  after  pass- 
ing would  appear  the  name  of  the  last  village  passed.  The 
only  difficulty  with  this  scheme  would  be  the  size  of  the 
post  required.  To  get  the  name  on  in  readable  letters  would 
require  a post  16  to  24  inches  square.  So  large  a post 
would  run  the  cost  up  materially. 

A hollow  circular  post  with  a cap  east  on  its  top  could  be 
made  of  cement. 

Iron  signs  have  been  successfully  used.  The  Automobile 
Club  of  Minneapolis  used  a malleable  cast-iron  form  30 
inches  long,  % inch  thick,  and  3 inches  wide.  The  letters 
are  2 inches  high  and  the  letters  and  a half-inch  border 
are  raised  about  % of  an  inch.  The  sign  is  bolted  to  a 2^- 
inch  galvanized-iron  pipe  set  in  concrete.  The  sign  is  gal- 
vanized, the  background  painted  white  and  the  raised  bor- 
der and  letters  finished  in  black.  The  cost  was  approxi- 
mately $7  per  sign. 

Steel  signs  with  letters  spot  welded  to  them  are  on  the 
market. 

Concrete  posts  with  board  signs  are  common  and  if  oc- 
casionally repainted  make  a durable  comparatively  cheap 
sign. 

One  of  the  chief  objections  to  the  advertising  signs  placed 
along  some  highways  is  that  the  information  relative  to  the 
highway  occupies  a very  small  portion  of  the  space  and  is 
not  easily  read  while  the  advertisement  stands  out  very 
prominently.  If  the  road  authorities  put  the  signs  up  at 
public  expense  they  could  be  much  smaller  and  would 
desecrate  the  landscape  correspondingly  less. 

Uniformity  of  Signs. — It  would  be  well  if  simple  stand- 
ards could  be  adopted  for  the  entire  United  States,  or  at 
least  for  each  state,  and  that  all  signs  be  set  with  uni- 


438  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


formity.  If  placed  consistently  at  the  same  distance  and 
height  from  the  roadway  the  eye  of  the  traveler  will  natu- 
rally seek  them  and  they  will  be  more  easily  read.  Evans 
and  Batchelder8  recommend  that  double-distance  board 
signs  be  36  inches  long  by  17  inches  deep  when  they  carry 
three  rows  of  names  and  a fourth  row  for  the  authority 
responsible  for  the  sign.  If  the  fourth  row  is  not  on  the 
sign  15  inches  deep  will  be  sufficient.  They  recommend  that 
the  size  of  the  plain  block  letters  be  graduated  according 
to  the  importance  of  the  places  mentioned.  The  top  line  for 
the  most  important  places  4-inch  letters;  the  second  row, 


37  NEWYORK  TRENTON  35 
25  NEWARK  PRINCETON  23 


7 PLAINFIELD 


SOMERVILLE 


5 


A New  Jersey  distance  and  direction  sign. 


less  important,  3-inch  letters,  and  the  third,  least  important, 
2-inch  letters.  Single  direction  signs  to  be  20  inches  long 
and  the  same  depth.  All  signs  on  posts  are  recommended 
to  be  placed  an  average  height  of  6 feet  above  the  roadway, 
on  houses  9 feet.  If  the  double  direction  names  are  placed 
below  each  other  the  board  will  not  need  to  be  so  long. 

Letters  and  Colors. — The  letters  should  be  clear  and 
distinct ; the  style  known  as  block  letter  is  good.  The  colors 
should  be  highly  contrasting.  Black  and  white  is  as  good 
as  any;  however,  Eno9  thinks  that  black  with  yellow  and 
red  with  white  are  the  best  combinations;  yellow  on  black 
being  better  than  black  on  yellow.  Eno  would  classify 
signs  as : 

8 “Direction  and  Distance  Signs,”  by  P.  Evans  and  A.  G. 
Batclielder,  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  30,  1913. 

8 Op.  cit.,  p.  11. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  439 

Primary,  those  for  warning  and  directing  moving  vehicles, 
vivid  yellow  letters,  arrows  or  graphics,  on  a black  background. 

Secondary,  those  for  stationary  vehicles,  designating  public 
parking  spaces,  cabstands,  car  and  bus  stops,  etc.,  black  on 
yellow  background. 

Tertiary,  those  for  the  control  of  pedestrians,  designating 
crosswalks,  safety  zones,  etc.,  red  on  white  background. 

Warning  Signs. — The  name  indicates  their  purpose,  that 
they  are  intended  to  warn  against  danger  or  to  indicate  that 
extra  precautionary  measures  should  be  exercised.  They 
give  notice  of  sharp  turns,  bad  bridges  and  culverts,  rail- 
road crossings,  cross-roads,  and  so  on.  Frequently  the 
word  “danger”  is  printed  followed  by  a descriptive  word 
indicating  the  kind  of  danger;  for  example,  “Danger — 
sharp  curve,”  “Danger — bad  bridge,”  “Danger — railroad 
crossing.”  Or  there  are  used  such  words  as  “Slow”  or 
more  simply  ‘ ‘ Slo,  ’ ’ with  a graphic  or  descriptive  word  fol- 
lowing, as,  “Slow — school,”  “Slo — drawbridge.” 

The  International  Road  Congress  suggested  a standard 
graphical  sign,  24  by  16  inches,  with  white  symbols  on  a 
black  background.  Some  American  roads  use  a modifica- 
tion of  these,  p.  440. 

Map  Signs. — There  seems  to  be  a tendency  toward  map 
signs  and  the  necessary  large  boards  which  they  entail.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  it  would  be  better  except 
for  exceptional  places  to  keep  to  as  small  a marker  as  can 
be  seen  readily.  The  sizes  recommended  by  the  Interna- 
tional Road  Congress  are  plenty  large  enough  and  probably 
could  be  decreased  without  impairing  their  utility.  An 
ordinary  sign  is  itself  an  unsightly  thing,  and  after  the 
campaigns  that  have  been  made  against  the  advertising  bill 
boards  it  seems  hardly  consistent  for  the  state  to  put  up 
almost  equally  unsightly  disfigurements  of  the  landscape. 

In  Maryland  the  direction  signs  between  towns  are  30 
inches  wide  by  20  inches  high  and  display  in  white  letters 
on  a black  background  the  name  of  the  road,  the  distance 
to  and  from  important  points,  and  all  principal  connec- 
tions. Evidently  “the  wayfaring  men  though  fools  shall 
not  err  therein.  ’ ’ Other  states  are  putting  up  similar  signs. 


440  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


WARNING  SIGNS  AS  USED  ON  SOME  AMERICAN  ROADS 
BLACK  ON  WHITE  BACKGROUND 

International  Road  Congress  warning  signs.  Warning  signs  as  used  on  somo  American  roads. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  441 

Illinois  is  using  about  the  same  size  boards  setting  them  for 
each  turn  in  the  road,  each  entering  road,  whether  or  not 
it  comes  in  from  one  or  both  sides,  each  school  and  other 
places  where  special  care  should  be  taken.  On  a map  at- 
tached to  some  of  these  signs  is  a point  or  star  indicating 
the  position  of  the  sign  on  the  road. 

In  addition  to  direction  and  distance  signs  Maryland 
erects  large,  10  feet  square,  map  signs  at  the  limits  of  each 
of  the  larger  towns.  Upon  this  map  is  delineated  the 
main  routes  through  the  town  in  white  and  the  secondary 
routes  in  gray,  the  names  of  the  streets  and  well-established 
landmarks,  so  that  a person  can  make  a decision  of  the 
route  he  wishes  to  take  and  follow  it  without  difficulty. 
The  color  scheme  is  white  letters  on  black  background.  They 
are  oriented  to  read  in  the  direction  of  travel  so  that  if  the 
signboard  were  pushed  over  ahead  on  its  back  the  road 
would  point  in  the  direction  of  travel.  On  the  map  in  red 
is  a star  with  the  words,  “You  are  now  at  this  point.” 

On  the  top  of  mountain  grades  Maryland  erects  boards 
similar  in  size  to  the  map  boards,  which  state  the  number 
of  miles  down  the  mountain,  indicate  curves  and  give  con- 
cise instructions  how  to  drive  down  so  as  to  avoid  accident 
and  personal  injury.  This  is  to  assist  inexperienced 
drivers  and  those  unacquainted  with  the  region  by  telling 
how  to  brake  their  cars  by  putting  them  into  “high,”  “in- 
termediate,” and  “low”  at  certain  places,  which,  of  course, 
will  be  very  helpful,  and  may  save  an  accident. 

Where  the  state  roads  cross  from  Maryland  into  neighbor- 
ing states  a large  sign  15  to  25  feet  is  erected  on  which  is 
displayed  the  salient  features  of  the  state  motor  vehicle  law. 
No  one,  therefore,  need  be  ignorant  of  the  law  and  thus  un- 
pleasantly encounter  the  state  police.  The  contract  price 
of  these  signs  range  from  $12  for  a single  face  direction 
sign  to  $347.50  for  a state-line  motor  vehicle  law  sign.  They 
are  kept  in  repair  by  the  contractor  at  prices  ranging  from 
$3.50  to  $20  each  per  year.10 

10  The  information  about  Maryland ’s  signs  is  taken  from  articles 
by  Harry  D.  Williar,  Jr.,  Assistant  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Maryland 


442  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

Detour  Signs. — Perhaps  nothing  is  more  exasperating 
to  the  tourist  than  to  come  to  a barricade  with  the  word 
“Detour,”  and  then  find  the  detour  road  practically  im- 
passable. In  many  states  the  contractor  on  a piece  of  con- 
struction work  is  obligated  to  care  for  detour  roads  and  de- 
tour signs  during  the  time  the  road  is  closed.  Finding  the 
obligation  not  well  fulfilled  several  of  the  states  are  taking 
over  that  work  in  order  that  it  might  be  done  in  a manner 
to  satisfy  the  traveling  public.  Wisconsin11  considers  the 
proper  marking  and  maintaining  of  detours  more  impor- 
tant than  similar  work  of  the  regular  trunk  routes,  for  well- 
marked  detours  are  necessary  to  keep  enthusiasm  for  good 
road  construction  alive.  Minnesota,  North  Carolina,  and 
other  states  have  adopted  similar  plans. 

Before  a road  is  closed  a detour  is  selected  and  marked 
and  thus  automatically  becomes  a part  of  the  state  trunk 
line  system.  A map  sign  is  placed  at  the  ends  of  long  de- 
tours showing  the  road  under  construction,  the  detour,  the 
location  of  railways,  cities,  and  prominent  natural  features. 
The  traveler  thus  gets  a definite  idea  of  the  way  he  must 
go  to  return  to  the  main  highway.  Ordinary  markers  are 
placed  along  the  line  of  detour. 

In  Connecticut  and  some  other  states  a half  width  of  the 
roadway  is  paved  at  a time,  allowing  the  other  half  to  be 
used  while  the  first  half  is  under  construction.  This  is 
possible  where  the  detour  is  not  too  long,  or  if  there  is 
passing  room  in  the  one-half  way.  Concrete  is  well  adapted 
for  this  sort  of  construction.  The  joint  down  the  center  is 
a benefit  rather  than  a detriment  to  this  type  of  road  sur- 
face; it  acts  as  an  expansion  joint  and  allows  a certain 
amount  of  flexibility  under  the  warping  action  of  heat,  and 
furnishes  a mid-line  mark  to  keep  passenger  traffic  in 
proper  lanes. 

State  Highway  Road  Commission,  in  Public  Boads,  August,  1921,  and 
'Engineering  and  Contracting,  October  5,  1921. 

11  ‘ ‘ The  ‘ Wisconsin  Idea,  ’ as  Applied  to  Detours  a Source  of  Satis- 
faction to  Motorists,”  by  N.  M.  Isabella,  Assistant  Maintenance 
Engineer,  in  Concrete  Highway  Magazine,  April,  1922. 


rsLO  i 

SLO 

X 

it 

DANGEROUS 
L CROSSING  A 

Yellow  on  Black. 


Yellow  on  Blank. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  443 

"Widening  the  roadway  before  reconstruction  has  begun 
will  also  furnish  room  for  the  passage  of  vehicles.  Of 
course  under  either  of  these  two  last  methods  the  passing 
vehicles  are  more  or  less  of  a nuisance  to  the  constructor 
and  if  a reasonably  direct  detour  entirely  away  from  the 
work  under  construction  can  be  maintained  in  satisfactory 
condition  so  much  the  better.  While  the  traffic  must  be 
inconvenienced  to  some  degree  by  detours  the  fact  that  an 
effort  is  being  made  by  the  road  authorities  to  make  the 
substitute  as  pleasant  as  possible  will  leave  a “good  taste 
in  the  mouth”  of  the  traveling  public  which  is  worth  while 
whether  that  traffic  is  local  or  from  a distance. 

Location  of  Detour  Markers. — The  location  or  arrange- 
ment of  detour  markers  in  reference  to  the  traveled  way 
has  received  considerable  attention.  Of  course  the  first 
signs  are  the  barricade  warning  and  at  the  barricade.  In 
Illinois  the  State  Department  of  Highways  requires  the 
barricade  warning  to  be  placed  about  400  feet  from  the 
barricade.  The  map  signs  of  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and 
North  Carolina  are  used  also  as  barricade  signs.  Any 
driver,  not  authorized,  passing  a barricade  is  by  the  laws 
of  some  states  subject  to  arrest  and  fine.  Detour  arrows 
are  placed  at  road  intersections  in  such  a manner  that 
traffic  going  in  either  direction  may  follow  the  arrow.  Il- 
linois uses  a black  arrow  on  a white  background.  Iowa 
has  somewhat  similar  signs  except  that  the  color  scheme 
is  a white  arrow  on  a black  background.  The  word  “de- 
tour” is  printed  above  and  below  the  arrow  and  the  one 
painted  out  that  is  not  needed  after  the  sign  is  erected. 
In  Iowa  upon  primary  (State)  roads  the  district  engineer, 
and  upon  county  roads  the  county  engineer,  is  held  respon- 
sible for  the  following: 

First. — He  shall  determine  whether  or  not  a detour  is  needed. 

Second. — He  shall  cooperate  with  the  local  officials  in  choosing 
a detour. 

Third. — He  shall  provide  for  the  proper  marking  of  the  detour. 

Fourth. — He  shall  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  the  detour 
and  report  such  provision  in  the  central  office. 


444  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


Speed  Signs. — Most  cities  and  towns  have  speed  limits 
lower  than  that  allowed  in  the  open  country.  Some  of  them 
even  divide  the  city  into  zones  and  make  a different  limit 
for  each  zone.  On  the  outer  edge  of  these  zones  and  the 
outer  edge  of  the  city  are  often  placed  signs  of  warning 
such  as  “Speed  Limit,  15  miles  per  hour.”  In  one  city 
was  facetiously  added  “Go  slow  and  see  our  city,  go  fast 
and  see  our  jail.”  On  the  backs  of  these  signs,  the  side 
seen  by  the  traveler  as  he  leaves,  are  sometimes  painted  the 
words  “You’re  Welcome — Come  Again.”  All  of  which  is 
to  give  the  traveler  a good  impression  and  thus  advertise 
the  community. 

Traffic  Guides. — Before  leaving  the  subject  perhaps 
something  more  should  be  said  about  traffic  guides  in  the 
cities  as  most  of  what  precedes  has  been  written  with  a 
view  to  country  roads,  although  many  of  these  signs  are 
applicable  to  city  streets. 

Lines  upon  the  pavement  should  be  used  to  define  cross- 
walks, parking  spaces,  and  restricted  and  reserved  zones. 
Curbstones  may  be  painted  white  or  yellow  to  indicate  no 
parking  against  them.  In  parking  spaces  the  stall  lines  are 
painted,  as  this  will  keep  vehicles  close  together  and  more 
will  be  able  to  park.  If  they  are  allowed  to  drive  in 
promiscuously  there  will  often  be  half  and  three-quarter 
spaces  which  cannot  be  used.  Painted  lines  should  be 
about  4 inches  wide.  If  well  put  on  with  good  paint  they 
will  wear  for  a considerable  period.  A painted  line  down 
the  center  of  a roadway,  especially  on  curves,  is  a great 
convenience  and  safety  device  for  passing  vehicles. 

Eno  tells  us  that  the  earliest  traffic  regulation  signs  in 
New  York  were  worded  “Slow  moving  Vehicles,  Keep  Near 
Curb.”  These  were  followed  gradually  by  many  others. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  place  on  signs  the  name  of  the  de- 
partment authorizing  them  as,  “Police  Department,”  “De- 
partment of  Streets  and  Allies,”  as  these  take  up  room 
and  make  the  signs  no  more  impressive.  The  simpler  and 
shorter  the  wording  the  better.  I have  been  told,  I did  not 
see  it,  that  in  Boston  instead  of  having  a sign  read  “One- 


Yellow  on  Black. 


Yellow  on  Black. 


I DO  NOT  I 

[parkhereT 
[park  IN  I 

| CENTER! 


Improperly  w 


orded  signs. 


Properly  worded 


Black  on  Yellow. 


10 

MILE 

SPEED 

LIMIT 


PUBLIC 

PARKING 

SPACE^ 


Black  on  Yellow 


Yellow  on  Black. 


Y'ellow  on  Black. 


careTquiet 

.SCHOOL  A HOSPITAL. 


Yellow  on  Black. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  445 


way  Traffic,”  it  is  made  to  say,  “Vehicles  Using  This 
Street  Will  Follow  in  the  Direction  of  the  Arrow  Only.” 
This  may  be  merely  a slam  at  the  Bostonese  but  it  illus- 
trates the  point. 

There  are  several  types  of  signs  in  use.  Most  of  them 
are  made  of  enameled  metal  and  may  be  placed  on  station- 
ary or  portable  standards.  The  stationary  standards  may 
be  made  of  iron  pipe  set  in  cement  with  the  sign  attached  to 
its  top.  The  sign  should  be  just  above  a tall  man’s  head, 
say  6 feet  6 inches  from  the  walk.  Portable  standards  are 
frequently  used,  having  an  elongated  (nearly  elliptical) 
iron  base,  sufficiently  heavy  to  hold  them  upright,  and  a 
pipe  extending  from  a hole  in  the  center  vertically  about  4 
feet  high,  to  bear  the  sign.  These  signs  are  placed  on  side- 
walks to  designate  parking  and  no  parking  places,  safety 
zones,  etc. 

Dummy  Cop. — A post,  column,  or  monument  designed 
to  stand  at  the  intersection  of  streets  in  place  of  a traffic 
officer  has  been  called  a dummy  cop.  Mushrooms  or  cement 
bumps  are  sometimes  utilized  in  the  same  manner.  Bump- 
ers are  used,  too,  to  indicate  restricted  and  safety  zones, 
isles  of  safety,  etc.  A dummy  cop  at  night  ought  to  carry 
a lantern  or  be  illuminated  from  some  outside  source. 

Semaphores. — A traffic  officer  sometimes  uses  a Go-Stop 
sign  so  arranged  at  the  top  of  a standard  that  by  turning 
a handle  he  can  present  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  words 
to  the  traffic.  Some  of  them  carry  a light  at  night,  and  an 
umbrella  to  shade  the  officer  during  the  day.  They  are 
objected  to  on  the  ground  that  there  is  no  neutral  posi- 
tion, they  always  say  either  “Go”  or  “Stop.”  If  by  a 
change  in  plan  they  could  be  designed  so  as  to  show  neither 
word  when  the  officer  was  not  at  his  post  they  could  act 
as  dummy  cops. 

Crow’s-nest,  or  traffic  tower,  is  a term  given  to  a lookout 
or  sentry  box  supported  about  7 feet  6 inches  above  the 
street  by  a strong  post.  The  crow’s-nest  has  a roof  for 
shade  and  shelter  and  may  carry  a semaphore  above  it,  and 
another  lower  down  to  attract  the  eye  of  nearby  persons. 


446  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


As  used  in  New  York  the  arms  have  electrical  control,  and 
at  night  carry  red  lights.  The  semaphore  is  for  the  block 
system  and  may  be  made  superfluous  when  rotary  traffic 
methods  are  in  vogue.  Mr.  Eno,  who  is  given  credit  for 
the  suggestion  of  the  crow’s-nest,  does  not  believe  that  they 
should  be  installed  at  every  intersection,  as  a “continuous 
block  system  wastes  too  much  of  the  traffic  capacity  of  the 
street  because  between  the  time  the  signal  is  given  to  stop 
and  the  time  the  signal  is  given  to  go  the  vehicles  (just 
ahead  of  the  break)  have  gone  ahead  a long  distance.  . . . 
This  leaves  a large  proportion  of  the  street  surface  un- 
occupied by  vehicles.”12  The  rotary  system  is  advocated 
as  one  which  will  distribute  the  traffic  uniformly  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  street,  and  also  equalize  the  speed  of 
vehicles  to  a safe  mean.  Crow’s-nests  may  be  used  where 
there  are  street  cars  by  making  them  high  enough  to  clear 
the  top  of  the  cars. 

Signal  Lights  and  Colors. — The  railroads  in  all  these 
years  have  not  come  to  a common  usage  of  colors  in  signal- 
ing. All  roads  use  red  for  stop,  danger.  Some  use  white 
and  some  green  to  proceed  with  caution;  white  and  green 
are  both  used  for  clear,  proceed.  Here  white  is  the  same 
as  yellow,  because  lanterns  using  oil  bum  with  a yellow 
light  which  railroad  men  call  white.  Electric  signals  may 
be  white  in  reality. 

There  now  seems  to  be  a demand  for  standardization  and 
at  a meeting  of  the  American  Association  of  State  Highway 
Officers  (1922,  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.)  a color  scheme  was  recom- 
mended that  may  become  a standard  for  both  motorists  and 
railroads.  One  of  the  difficulties  is  that  red  and  danger  are 
no  longer  properly  associated  because  of  the  common  use 
of  the  red  for  tail  lights  of  automobiles,  for  sandpiles  or 
other  street  obstructions,  for  the  tops  of  semaphores,  and 
for  various  other  purposes.  The  story  is  told  that  not  long 
ago  a bridge  was  being  repaired  and  a red  light  was  placed 
at  one  side.  The  signal  was  intended  as  a warning  that  the 

“An  article  entitled  “Prevent  the  Proposed  Permanent  Traffic 
Towers  on  Fifth  Avenue,”  by  Wm.  P.  Eno. 


© Underwood  and  Underwood 

TRAFFIC  TOWER  ON  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK  CITY 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  447 


autoist  slow  down  and  proceed  with  caution.  The  driver  of 
an  approaching  car  took  the  lantern  to  be  the  tail  light  of 
an  automobile.  He  swung  to  the  left  to  clear  the  obstruc- 
tion and  plunged  down  an  embankment. 

It  would  be  better  if  red  should  never  be  used  as  a pre- 
caution signal  but  only  as  a stop  signal,  but  at  the  present 
time  that  cannot  be  done  because  automobiles  now  carry, 
and  most  states  require  it  by  law,  a red  light  behind.  The 
color  once  considered  a sign  of  danger  has  become  almost 
meaningless.  Red  lanterns  are  placed  on  roads,  or  at 
bridges,  or  in  the  street  where  the  road  is  not  impassable 
but  merely  hazardous  and  the  light  in  reality  means  pro- 
ceed carefully.  If  colors  are  to  be  signals  to  tell  whether 
or  not  to  stop  on  account  of  danger,  to  proceed  cautiously 
or  to  go  ahead  without  fear,  they  should  be  standardized 
and  their  proper  use  protected. 

The  code  of  colors  as  recommended  by  the  Association  of 
State  Highway  Officials  is: 

Color  Green  to  mean  proceed,  the  way  is  clear. 

Color  Yellow  to  mean  that  caution  shall  be  exercised. 

Color  Red  to  mean  stop. 

The  Association  urges  abolishment  of  the  red  for  auto- 
mobile tail  lights  and  the  substitution  of  yellow  (white). 
There  are  other  reasons  why  this  should  be  done;  one  of 
them,  a white  light  will  illuminate  the  number  tag  much 
better  than  a red  light.  In  fact  Ohio  requires  a red  light 
shining  out  behind  and  a white  light  to  illuminate  the  tag. 
On  the  other  hand  by  the  different  colored  lights  one  can 
distinguish  whether  one  is  going  toward  the  front  or  back 
of  an  automobile,  a thing  of  importance,  sometimes. 

This  may  be  far  enough  to  go  at  the  present  time,  but 
later  the  standardization  of  other  signal  and  guide  lights 
would  be  well.  The  red  light  on  street  obstructions  should 
be  abolished.  Better  a bright  white  light  for  with  good 
illumination  the  danger  will  often  disappear. 

Road  and  Street  Lighting. — While  road  and  street 
lighting  are  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  safety, 


448  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


they,  as  signs  and  guides,  are  here  treated  under  the  head- 
ing of  comfort  and  convenience  to  the  user. 

Like  other  things  pertaining  to  roads,  lighting  has  dur- 
ing the  past  few  years  seen  wonderful  development.  Open- 
arc  lights  have  all  but  passed  out  of  use.  Even  in  the  field 
of  incandescent  lighting  many  improvements  have  and  are 
still  being  made.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  cater  to  the 
esthetic  sense  and  create  beauty  by  artistic  shapes  and 
sizes  of  lamps  and  by  harmonious  groupings.  Safety,  com- 
fort, and  esthetic  design  cannot  always  be  combined,  then 
one  or  the  other  must  give  way. 

Silhouette  vision,  that  is,  where  the  object  appears  dark 
against  a lighter  background,  requires  a much  less  illumina- 
tion intensity  than  direct  or  detail  vision.  In  the  first  case 
the  object  is  between  the  observer  and  the  light  while  in  the 
second  case  the  light  is  reflected  from  the  object  to  the  ob- 
server. Then  there  are  spot  lights  and  flood  lights  where 
the  light  is  thrown  directly  upon  the  object  and  as  little 
as  possible  allowed  to  disperse  into  surrounding  space. 
Dean  Ferguson13  has  pointed  out  that  safety  lighting  is 
secured  by  any  illumination  that  will  reveal  clearly  the 
presence  and  nature  of  a danger,  and  also  that  low  illumina- 
tion intensities  used  in  silhouette  effect  may  serve  for  safety 
at  a greatly  reduced  expense.  Much  of  street  lighting  is 
of  the  silhouette  type,  depending  on  the  relative  positions 
of  the  observer,  the  illuminant,  and  the  object  to  be  seen. 
As  we  approach  a post  or  sand  pile  on  the  street  it  appears 
first  as  a black  object  in  silhouette,  as  we  come  nearer  the 
reflected  light  becomes  more  intense  and  the  object  is  seen 
in  detail.  There  seems  to  be  a sort  of  twilight  zone  between 
these  two  conditions  where  the  visibility  is  least.  The  sil- 
houette vision  appears  to  be  best  when  the  intensity  of  the 
reflected  light  is  least,  and  vice  versa  for  the  detail  or  direct 
vision.  The  indeterminate  place  between  the  two  where 
visibility  is  least  is,  of  course,  where  the  light  behind  is 
equal  in  intensity  to  the  reflected  light  in  front.  One  ob- 

““ Electric  Lighting,”  by  O.  J.  Ferguson;  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  New  York. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  449 

ject  of  the  illuminating  engineer  is  so  to  arrange  the  lights 
as  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  points  of  low  visibility.  This 
he  does  by  the  size  and  spacing  of  the  light  units,  their 
height  of  suspension  and  the  shape  and  setting  of  the  re- 
flectors. These  same  elements  enter  into  the  avoidance  of 
glare. 

In  city  and  street  lighting  it  is  nearly  always  desirable 
to  illuminate  the  buildings  as  well  as  the  road  surface,  so 
that  the  type  of  lamp  used  is  entirely  different  from  that 
desirable  on  country  roads  where  only  the  surface  of  the 
roadway  needs  to  be  lighted.  Ornamental  lights  of  the 
luminous  arc  and  the  incandescent  types  are  used.  The 
former  where  a large  amount  of  intense  light  is  wanted, 
and  the  latter  where  smaller  units  will  answer  the  purpose. 

The  latest  road  lighting  is,  perhaps,  that  developed  for 
the  “Ideal  Section”  mentioned  heretofore.14  Here  it  was 
important  to  concentrate  the  light  on  the  roadway  instead 
of  diffusing  it  upward  and  over  the  adjoining  fields,  to 
have  a flexibility  of  arrangement  that  would  keep  the  light 
in  line  with  the  surface  of  the  roadway,  and  that  the  cost 
should  be  reasonable.  The  scheme  developed  contemplates 
placing  the  lighting  units  on  adjustable  brackets  35  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  road,  spaced  250  feet,  staggered. 
They  can  be  set  for  varying  grades,  for  curves,  or  for  the 
lighting  of  a portion  of  the  roadside  if  thought  necessary. 
The  unit  consists  of  a nest  of  three  reflectors,  one  within 
another,  and  with  an  opening  in  each  one  side  of  the  lamp. 
These  collect  and  reflect  the  light  to  the  surface  as  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  detailed  article  should  be  consulted  by 
those  who  are  further  interested. 

City  Traffic. — Projectors  suspended  above  a traffic 
officer  illuminates  him  and  his  semaphore  much  as  spot 
lights  are  used  in  theaters  and  flood  lights  to  illuminate 
statuary  and  buildings.  Many  of  the  busy  cities  are  install- 
ing color  lenses  in  the  towers  (crow’s-nests)  to  regulate 
the  traffic.  The  colors  which  are  used  both  day  and  night 

14  ‘ ‘ Improved  Lighting  System  to  be  Installed  on  the  Lincoln  High- 
way, ” by  H.  H.  Bell,  Electrical  World,  April  15,  1922- 


450  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


are  standardized  as  follows:  Red,  to  indicate  “Stop”; 
amber,  to  indicate  “Change  of  traffic”;  and  green,  to  indi- 
cate “Go.” 

Touring. — Stand  for  a few  minutes  on  any  one  of  the 
transcontinental  highways  and  note  the  tourists  who  have 
their  bedding  and  baggage  piled  in  and  tied  to  the  sides 
of  their  cars.  Note  the  brown  and  healthy  faces  of  the 
brown-clad  travelers.  Dust  has  no  horrors  to  them;  they 
expect  it;  they  are  prepared  for  it.  Their  khaki  clothing 
cost  little  when  purchased  and  wears  well,  and  even  if 
thrown  away  at  the  end  of  the  journey  has  more  than  paid 
its  way.  The  author  of  “Let  me  live  by  the  side  of  the 
road  and  be  a friend  to  man”  could  certainly  enjoy  him- 
self during  these  mid-summer  gypsying  days.  For  one  has 
the  world  brought  to  his  own  dooryard.  "Wait  and  there 
will  come  to  you  Maine,  and  California,  and  Texas,  and 
Oregon,  Michigan,  Canada,  Mexico.  A man  drove  on  my 
driveway  a few  days  ago  and  used  my  hose  to  wash  Texas 
soil  from  his  fenders,  and  now  that  yellow  dirt  is  nourish- 
ing a spirea  bush  in  Nebraska- 

Come  around  in  the  evening  just  after  the  supper,  not 
dinner,  utensils  have  been  cleared  away,  and  from  these 
roadside  campers  in  the  course  of  the  summer  you  may 
hear  the  Vermonter  drop  the  “r”  from  “qua Teh”  and  put 
it  into  “idear,”  the  Georgian  with  his  delightful  Southern 
drawl,  a Minnesotan  with  high-pitched  voice  and  Scan- 
danavian  accent,  or  a musically  soft  Spanish  from  the  Rio 
Grande  regions.  All  the  world’s  make  of  automobiles  may 
be  inspected,  their  good  and  bad  features  discussed.  Outing 
outfits  of  all  characters  and  descriptions  from  the  small 
compact  bundle  scarcely  big  enough  for  a flea,  to  the  cum- 
bersome behemoth  mountain  of  canvas,  boxes,  and  poles. 
There  is  the  man  who  believes  Detroit  is  destined  to  be  the 
largest  city  in  the  world,  and  the  man  who  is  certain  noth- 
ing can  compare  with  Los  Angeles.  Truly  the  man  who 
lives  beside  the  road  may  have,  if  he  is  endowed  with  gump- 
tion, a joyful  time  as  the  perennial  reel  runs  on. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  451 

But  if  such  things  come  to  the  man  who  sits  in  his  house 
beside  the  road  and  watches  the  race  of  men  go  by,  what 
must  be  the  feelings  of  the  man  of  gypsying  instinct  as  he 
climbs  into  his  car,  caring  not  for  time  or  place,  who  has 
not  painstakingly  scheduled  his  route  and  must  perforce 
make  a certain  hotel  every  night,  who  is  no  “speed  lizard” 
but  expects  to  take  in  as  he  journeys  along  all  the  scenic 
beauties  and  interesting  features  along  the  way.  His  only 
care  is  to  head-about  at  the  proper  time  to  bring  him 
home  again  at  the  end  of  his  vacation. 

It  is  estimated  that  more  than  a million  persons  are  fol- 
lowing some  such  nomadic  life  each  year  in  the  United 
States.  The  term  “motor-gypsy,”  has  been  quite  definitely 
applied  by  the  people  to  those  who  tour  leisurely  and 
camp  more  or  less  as  they  go.  A part  of  the  people  set 
aside  six  months  or  a year  to  a long  tour,  seeking  the 
north,  south,  coast  or  mountain  as  fancy,  heat  and  cold 
dictate,  a greater  number  travel  from  two  to  four  months, 
going  one  year  to  the  Michigan  forests,  another  to  the 
lakes  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  passing  through  the 
great  granaries  of  the  world  to  the  cooling  breezes  of  Colo- 
rado, ambling  along  the  coast  to  Georgia  and  Florida,  fol- 
lowing the  windings  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  old  Creole 
districts  of  Louisiana,  up  the  Platte  or  through  the  Black 
Hills,  to  trout  fishing  in  Wyoming,  or  stopping  at  the 
borders  for  walking  trips  over  the  wildernesses  in  the  Yel- 
lowstone and  Glacier  National  parks.  The  entire  expanse 
of  a most  wonderful  nation  is  open  to  the  motor-gypsy. 

Camping  Grounds. — So  important  has  this  sort  of  travel 
become  that  it  is  estimated  that  about  3000  cities  and 
towns  over  the  country,  beginning  in  the  Middle  West  and 
now  spread  to  both  coasts,  have  public  automobile  camp- 
ing grounds  for  the  traveling  visitors.  These  are  provided 
and  kept  up  by  the  cities  themselves  or  by  chambers  of 
commerce  or  automobile  clubs;  sometimes  by  combinations 
of  these  organizations. 

The  question  often  arises,  “Does  it  pay?”  From  a finan- 


452  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

cial  standpoint  it  probably  pays  the  community  as  a whole 
even  if  every  individual  who  subscribes  does  not  receive 
reimbursement.  In  the  first  place  the  tourist’s  impression 
of  a city  is  influenced  by  the  treatment  he  receives.  If  an 
effort  is  made  to  furnish  him  with  a safe  and  comfortable 
camping  site  and  with  facilities  for  cooking  and  cleaning 
he  returns  home  with  praises  for  that  city.  He  tells  other 
tourists  that  he  meets  on  the  way,  he  tells  his  neighbors 
after  he  gets  home,  and  other  and  still  other  tourists  come. 
On  the  contrary  if  no  provision  is  made  for  the  tourist,  if  he 
is  not  met  with  a glad  hand  he  naturally  warns  others  to 
keep  away  or  plan  to  pass  through  in  the  daytime,  spending 
what  spare  time  they  have  farther  on  in  more  hospitable 
centers. 

Secondly,  tourists  always  spend  some  money  for  food  and 
supplies,  for  gasoline,  tires,  accessories,  repairs,  and  with 
increasing  frequency  for  hotels.  Clothing  and  dry-goods 
stores  profit  to  some  extent.  Since  thousands  of  dollars 
are  brought  to  those  towns  lying  on  the  main  thoroughfares 
having  good  camping  facilities,  and  since  this  money  will 
be  respent  by  those  receiving  it  directly,  the  entire  com- 
munity in  the  long  run  benefits  by  the  touring  traffic. 
Denver  possibly  averages  400  to  500  campers  per  day 
during  the  summer  season.  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  Lin- 
coln, Deadwood  and  all  the  smaller  places  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  entertain  from  25  to  100  per  day.  The  actual 
tourists  are  many  more,  for  not  nearly  all  camp  along  the 
way.  The  Omaha  Auto  Club  registered  cars  in  1921 
carrying  over  40,000  tourists.  Other  gateways  passed 
fully  as  many,  and  not  nearly  all  took  the  trouble  to  look 
up  the  club  office  to  register.  During  the  winter  season 
the  gypsying  traffic  turns  south  and  Georgia,  Florida, 
and  on  west  to  California,  benefit  by  it. 

A traffic  census  made  simultaneously  on  eighteen  Ne- 
braska roads,  distributed  widely  over  the  state,  of  vehicles 
passing  in  one  week  (August  20-26,  1922),  showed  a total 
of  88,958  divided  as  follows : 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  453 


County 

Inter- 

County 

Inter- 

State 

Total 

Percentage 

Co. 

I-C. 

I-S. 

Automobile 

40,598 

25,595 

13,560 

79,753 

51 

32 

17 

Light  Truck 

2,465 

886 

242 

3,593 

68 

25 

7 

Heavy  Truck 

1,547 

556 

140 

2,243 

69 

25 

6 

Horse-drawn,  passenger . 

1,303 

1,303 

Horse-drawn,  freight. . . . 

2,066 

2,066 

Total 

47,979 

27,037 

13,942 

88,958 

"What  is  especially  interesting  in  this  connection  is  that 
nearly  one-sixth  of  all  the  automobiles  or  one  automobile  in 
six,  comes  from  without  the  state,  and  one  in  three  from 
without  the  county.  Connecticut  censuses,  Connecticut 
being  a small  state  between  thickly  populated  states,  shows 
a much  higher  ratio,  47  per  cent  without  the  state. 

All  sorts  of  cars  from  the  most  expensive  to  the  cheapest 
are  found  and  they  seem  to  be  harmonious  when  on  the 
camping  ground ; the  Pierce-Arrow  and  the  Rolls-Royce  do 
not  look  disdainfully  at  the  Ford  and  the  Chevrolet,  neither 
do  the  latter  pretend  an  importance  greater  than  their  due. 

Democracy  of  cars  and  democracy  of  people  ought  to  lead 
to  a better  understanding  all  around.  Some  very  excellent 
and  well-to-do  ladies  of  a western  city  went  to  a hotel  in  one 
of  the  national  parks  for  luncheon.  They  were  clad  in 
khaki  trousers  and  blouses  which  had  seen  considerable 
wear.  The  dining  room  was  full  and  they  were  placed 
at  a table  where  some  distinguished  looking  and  well- 
dressed  men  were  talking  stocks  and  bonds.  The  ladies  in 
such  garb  were  nonplused,  they  were  embarrassed  to  the 
limit ; but  the  men,  being  also  gentlemen,  gave  their  names 
and  became  acquainted.  So  pleasant  proved  this  little  din- 
ner participated  in  by  the  khaki-clothed  ladies  and  stylishly 
attired  men  that  at  its  conclusion  they  shook  hands  heartily 
and  bade  each  other  Godspeed  for  the  remaining  journey 
and  hoped  that,  not  like  ships  that  pass  each  other  in  the 
night,  they  would  again  meet  to  renew  an  acquaintance  so 
happily  begun.  Such  is  the  democracy  of  touring. 


454  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 


On  the  contrary  an  editorial  writer  in  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  November  18,  1922,  expresses  incredulity 
of  the  offhand  opinion  ‘ ‘ that  travel  of  any  kind  must  rub 
off  the  sharp  edges  of  provincialism.”  He  says  the 
“American  tourist  in  Europe  has  long  been  the  subject 
of  ridicule,”  and  that  travel  in  many  cases  “appears  to 
accentuate  narrow-mindedness.”  It  is  further  argued 
that  “too  much  travel  means  practical  disfranchisement 
and  a total  lack  of  interest  in  local  affairs.”  There  is 
no  doubt  but  that  anything,  even  touring,  can  be  carried 
to  extremes.  The  editorial  concludes  with  the  statement, 
however,  that  travel  “can  teach  no  lesson  of  more  value 
than  the  knowledge  that  everywhere,  whether  the  climate 
be  hot  or  cold,  the  towns  large  or  small,  men  of  upstand- 
ing character  are  spending  their  lives  to  make  those 
communities  better  places  in  which  to  live.  ’ ’ It  must  be 
acknowledged  that  the  fact  that  only  about  one-half  of 
the  persons  eligible  to  the  franchise  exercise  the  right  of 
voting  at  the  general  elections  indicates  that  not  enough 
interest  is  taken  in  affairs  of  government.  Anything 
which  tends  to  decrease  the  interest  is,  therefore,  bad. 
But  moderate  touring  in  our  own  country  ought  to  give 
a person  a wider  view,  a stronger  love  of  eounti’y,  and  a 
deeper  sense  of  the  importance  and  benefits  of  citizen- 
ship therein. 

A majority  of  the  cars  are  of  the  type  that  would  cost 
less  than  $1500,  because  there  are  more  cars  of  that  type  in 
use.  One  of  the  most  elaborate  caravans  seen  on  the 
D.  L.  D.  highway  this  summer  is  a Winton  six,  with  a 
lengthened  frame  on  which  is  built  a square  van-like  struc- 
ture, with  doors  and  windows  and  a rear  observation  plat- 
form. The  driver ’s  seat  is  completely  enclosed.  By  its  side 
is  a door  which  gives  entrance  to  the  interior  of  the  car. 
Its  size  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  the  wheel  base 
is  202  inches.  In  the  front  part  of  the  car  are  rattan  arm 
chairs  deeply  upholstered  for  all  the  members  of  the  party. 
There  is  an  ample  aisle.  In  the  rear  of  the  car  is  a kitchen- 
ette, a lavatory,  storerooms,  cloak  rooms  and  many  mis- 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  4 55 


cellaneous  conveniences.  At  night  the  car  is  run  to  a con- 
venient place  by  the  side  of  the  road  or  in  a special  camp- 
ing place.  The  end  of  the  observation  platform  is  let  down, 
a tent  is  hooked  over  the  rear  hood,  and  there  is  room  in  a 
jiffy  for  cots  for  three  people.  Two  double  beds  are  made 
up  in  the  aisle  of  the  main  car,  giving  plenty  of  room  for 
seven. 

In  the  morning  it  takes  but  little  time  to  prepare  break- 
fast in  the  kitchenette.  The  car  has  running  water  from 
a tank  holding  about  thirty  gallons.  It  is  lighted  by  elec- 
tricity and  has  every  convenience  that  one  can  think  of. 
This  is  the  fourth  car  designed  by  its  owner,  Dr.  E.  J. 
Fithian  of  Grove  City,  Pennsylvania.  It  cost  him  a little 
less  than  $10,000.  He  believes  it  possible  to  plan  a shorter 
car  that  will  serve  every  purpose  for  a little  more  than 
$5000.  The  car  makes  from  150  to  200  miles  a day  over 
ordinary  roads.  It  weighs  8200  pounds  fully  loaded  with 
gas,  water,  and  supplies.  It  is  said  to  ride  as  easily  as  an 
ordinary  automobile.  The  passengers  sit  in  their  chairs 
and  watch  the  scenery  glide  by  very  much  as  from  the 
window  of  a Pullman,  but  with  this  difference,  that  they 
are  free  to  go  and  pause  at  will,  and  can  see  interesting 
sights,  if  they  desire,  off  the  main  lines  of  travel. 

Another  caravan  built  on  a Ford  car  passed  through  Lin- 
coln last  summer.  It  carried  Mr.  and  Mrs.  C.  B.  Hays  of 
Great  Falls,  Montana,  who  have  lived  in  it  for  two  years, 
winter  and  summer.  Failing  health  induced  Mr.  Hays  to 
take  to  the  simple  life,  and  a stroke  of  paralysis  made  it 
impossible  for  Mrs.  Hays  to  walk.  Two  years  ’ outdoor  life 
and  roughing  it  have  restored  health  to  both,  besides  during 
that  time  they  have  saved  much  on  house  rent. 

In  their  caravan,  the  windows  along  the  sides  could 
be  pushed  out  like  an  awning  and  an  oil  cloth  curtain 
dropped  down.  On  one  side  of  the  car  a long  cushion 
served  as  a seat  during  the  day  and  by  adding  other  cush- 
ions it  made  a bed  at  night.  A large  flat  box  did  duty  as 
a linen  closet  while  fastened  around  the  sides  were  nu- 
merous bags  or  pockets  for  taking  care  of  articles  which  at 


456  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

home  are  kept  in  bureau,  drawers.  In  one  comer  was  a 
small  oil  stove  with  a tiny  oven  upon  which  was  cooked 
wholesome  meals  well  relished  by  the  outdoor  wanderers. 

When  dinner  was  ready,  the  door  of  the  china  cupboard 
swung  down  on  its  hinges  and  a table  large  enough  for  two 
was  soon  dispensing  nourishment  for  the  hungry  nomads. 
They  dine,  too,  in  the  restful  atmosphere  of  delightful 
music.  No,  not  a phonograph.  From  the  beamed  ceiling  of 
this  unique  house  swings  a yellow  canary  in  his  gilded 
cage.  Can  you  imagine  any  music  more  alluring  to  per- 
fect joy  and  rest  or  more  alarming  to  the  dread  monster 
indigestion  ? 

Even  the  crumbs  are  not  wasted,  for  they  are  relished 
by  the  pug,  who  likes  to  sleep  curled  up  on  his  bed  on 
top  of  the  fender. 

At  the  side  of  the  car  Mr.  Hays  has  apparently  solved 
the  hand  signal  problem  for  closed  cars.  A stuffed  glove 
attached  to  a broad  arm  may  be  raised  partially  for  a left- 
hand  turn,  fully  for  a right-hand  turn,  straight  out  to 
stop,  and  dropped  to  the  side  of  the  car  when  not  in  use.  A 
white  enamel  water  cooler  was  an  attractive  accessory  to 
the  dining  room.  A wash-board  and  a small  tub  told  the 
story  of  how  wearing  apparel  was  laundered.  Mrs.  Hays 
wants  a sewing  machine,  and  although  space  is  very  much 
limited  she  says  she  will  find  the  room. 

Is  there  any  wonder  that  health  and  youth  return  with 
this  sort  of  ‘ ‘ play  ’ ’ housekeeping.  ‘ ‘ Can  you  beat  it  ? ’ ’ 

Something1  More  Moderate. — While  there  are  many 
persons  of  means,  the  owners  of  expensive  cars,  pitching 
their  tents  in  shady  nooks,  enjoying  the  sociability  of  glow- 
ing camp  fires,  and  sleeping  to  the  music  of  gurgling  trout 
streams,  there  are  also  those  who  drive  cheaper  cars  who 
are  enjoying  the  same  starry  nights,  the  hum  of  bees  and 
the  flash  of  birds,  who  take  the  gamy  trout  to  help  out 
their  daily  rations,  who  stop  to  regale  themselves  with  wild 
berries  and  ehokecherries,  who  relish  the  chuek-chuc-k  of  the 
red  squirrel,  and  the  flirt  of  the  saucy  chipmunk’s  tail  as 
he  scurries  to  a hiding  place.  Wealth  has  no  monopoly  on 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  457 

the  enjoyment  of  nature,  and  most  any  one  who  is  able  to 
own  a car  of  any  kind  is  able  to  take  a more  or  less  lengthy 
gypsying  tour. 

Mr.  Elon  Jessup15  says  “Motor  camping  is  the  only  way 
in  which  many  people  can  afford  to  travel  at  all.  ’ ’ He  tells 
of  meeting  in  Banff,  Canada,  a farmer,  his  wife  and  five 
children,  who  were  enjoying  the  wondrous  sights  in  that 
region,  and  while  their  car  was  somewhat  rickety,  neverthe- 
less it  had  drawn  them  there.  The  farmer’s  explanation 
was  to  the  effect  that  he  had  wanted  for  years  to  take  his 
family  to  that  country  but  had  never  been  able  to  stand 
the  expense  until  he  got  the  flivver.  Then  going  did  not 
cost  much  more  than  staying  at  home. 

There  will  be  all  sorts  of  conveyances  ranging  from  the 
simple  touring  car  with  no  modifications  whatsoever  to  the 
elaborate  caravan  described.  There  are  also  on  the  mar- 
ket all  sorts  of  special  accessories.  A pantograph  luggage- 
holder  clamps  on  the  running  board.  Tents  that  cover  the 
car  at  night  and  extend  out  sidewise,  or  endwise,  to  shelter 
cots,  beds,  or  cooking  and  eating  equipment.  Beds  that  at- 
tach to  the  running  board  and  fold  up  during  the  day ; beds 
that  fit  on  top  of  the  seats.  Sets  of  dishes  and  cooking  uten- 
sils are  now  made  to  nest  into  each  other  in  such  a manner 
as  to  take  up  very  little  space. 

Mr.  Jessup  in  “The  Motor  Camping  Book,”  already  re- 
ferred to,  elaborates  considerably  on  equipping  the  camp- 
ing outfit  but  intimates  that  it  is  a matter  for  individual 
judgment.  No  two  persons  can  agree.  This  is  right,  as  it 
gives  flexibility  and  zest.  Summed  up  there  are  two  funda- 
mentals : Only  necessities  should  be  taken  and  these  should 
be  selected  for  compactness.  But  what  are  necessities? 
blankets  to  roll  up  in  on  the  ground?  or  should  a cot  or 
bed  be  included?  Would  a folding  table  and  a chair  help 
to  make  one  more  comfortable.  It  is  a compromise  be- 
tween what  one  would  like  and  what  one  has  room  for. 

Mrs.  Nina  Wilcox  Putnam16  thinks  that  for  a transcon- 

15  “The  Motor  Camping  Book,”  G.  P.  Putnam’s  Sons,  New  York. 

19  “ A Jitney  Guide  to  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,  ’ ’ by  Nina  Wilcox  Put- 
nam, in  Saturday  Evening  Post,  June  10,  1922. 


458  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

tinental  trip  a touring  oar  of  medium  size  with  good  under 
clearance  to  avoid  hitting  the  high  centers  in  some  of  the 
western  roads  is  best.  As  she  patronized  hotels  exclusively 
no  camping  equipage  was  necessary.  For  clothing  for 
women  she  says  that  east  of  the  Mississippi  she  and  her 
husband  found  it  practical  to  wear  just  such  motor  clothes 
as  one  would  wear  at  home,  but  they  should  be  “dirt-col- 
ored.” West  of  the  Mississippi  “khaki  for  all  hands  be- 
comes positively  de  rigueur.”  West  of  Kansas  City,  both 
men  and  women  wear  trousers.  She  assures  ladies  they 
can  “walk  into  the  best  hotels  through  the  Far  West  in 
the  aforesaid  garments  without  the  slightest  embarrass- 
ment. ’ ’ A complete  list  of  the  clothing  carried  by  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Putnam  is  given  in  the  article  above  referred  to  and 
those  who  expect  to  take  the  trip  might  do  well  to  look  it  up. 

Heavy  as  well  as  light  clothing  will  be  needed  when 
traveling  through  the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  The  nights 
and  mornings  are  always  cool,  but  under  the  direct  action 
of  the  sun  the  valleys  often  become  extremely  hot.  The 
only  rule  is,  carry  as  little  as  you  can  and  still  be  comfort- 
able. 

Camp  Sites. — A gentleman,  who  with  his  wife  and  a 
Chevrolet  coupe,  the  rear  of  which  was  modified  into  a 
large  box  about  5 feet  square  and  2 feet  deep,  who  has 
“gypsied”  across  the  United  States  several  times  from  east 
to  west  and  from  north  to  south,  says  the  problem  of  a 
camping  ground  for  an  average  town  is  simple.  Only  a 
small  tract  is  needed,  and  if  it  is  properly  looked  after  he 
thinks  the  tourists  will  not  complain  of  a modest  charge 
that  will  make  it  self  sustaining.  The  average  tourist  would 
prefer  the  small  charge  and  clean  surroundings.7  “A  block 
is  enough  space,  if  the  affair  is  in  the  hands  of  a competent 
caretaker,  who  will  see  that  cars  and  tents  are  properly 
placed  and  guarded.  People  who  tour  in  ordinary  cars 
like  to  be  close  together.  They  are  not  aristocrats.  They 
are  folks.  They  like  to  visit  around  and  talk  roads,  and 

11  Interview  with  Frank  A.  Harrison  in  Nebraska  State  Journal, 
July  12,  1921. 


CAMPING  GROUND  AND  CARAVAN 


A GIPSYING  TOURING  CARAVAN 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  459 


examine  outfits  and  discuss  their  plans.  The  best  camps 
are  divided  into  small  plots  by  wooden  palings  on  three 
sides.  The  caretaker  shows  you  your  place  and  it  is  your 
home  for  25  cents  a day.  This  money  pays  the  caretaker 
and  gives  you  the  use  of  shower  baths  and  lavatory.  The 
best  camps  have  city  gas  for  cooking,  bought  through  a 
slot  meter.  Some  of  them  have  ovens,  but  gas  is  better. 
The  stoves  are  in  a shed,  which  becomes  the  club  house  of 
the  women.  They  meet  there  and  cook  and  wash  and  com- 
plain about  the  reckless  driving  of  their  husbands,  and  tell 
where  their  married  children  live  and  have  a glorious  time. 

‘ ‘ The  men  spend  their  spare  hours  buying  supplies  and 
talking  and  smoking,  chewing,  and  pitching  horseshoes. 
They  also  have  the  best  time  in  the  world.  If  the  auto 
camp  is  next  door  to  a good  garage  so  much  the  better.  Be- 
tween here  and  the  coast  the  common  thing  is  the  private 
auto  park.” 

Camps,  in  Mr.  Harrison’s  opinion,  should  not  only  be 
near  a garage,  for  convenience  and  information,  but  also 
as  near  the  business  center  as  possible  “because  the  tour- 
ists like  to  go  up  town  to  get  a restaurant  meal,  buy  soda 
water  and  postal  cards,  and  take  a squint  at  the  movies.” 
As  the  car  is  usually  a part  of  the  tent  and  usually  more  or 
less  cluttered  up  with  baggage  the  camp  site  should  prefer- 
ably be  in  walking  distance  of  the  center  of  town.  Too 
many  towns  have  the  camp  sitas  away  out  where  more  land 
is  obtainable,  and  possible  natural  shade.  They  should  be 
near  the  main  lines  of  travel  and  as  stated  the  nearer  a 
garage  and  grocery  store  the  better. 

The  time  will  no  doubt  come  when  garage  men  with  busi- 
ness acumen  will  establish  camping  facilities,  though  the 
space  be  small,  in  connection  with  their  garages  and 
charge  a small  fee  the  same  as  they  do  now  for  stabling  the 
car  overnight. 

Possibly  the  Denver  public  camp  ground  is  the  most 
liberally  patronized  of  any  in  the  United  States.  El  Paso, 
Texas,  has  a small  park  not  more  than  200  feet  square  that 
tourists  claim  to  be  the  best  eared  for  of  any  in  the  west. 


460  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

Olympia,  Washington,  is  praised  by  tourists  for  her  camp- 
ing facilities.  Only  very  recently  has  the  camp  idea  reached 
the  eastern  coast,  but  the  newspaper  accounts  indicate  that 
it  is  taking  hold. 

Hotels. — For  those  persons  who  do  not  care  to  camp 
there  are  always  hotels.  During  the  busy  season,  however, 
those  in  the  larger  towns  which  have  gained  a reputation 
with  the  traveling  public  are  usually  full  to  overflowing. 
Many  tourists  telegraph  ahead,  from  one  to  two  days,  for 
accommodations.  Rooms  can  be  obtained  in  all  the  towns 
but  not  always  bath  in  connection,  or  even  running  water. 
Throughout  the  wTell-settled  communities  meals  and 
luncheons  may  be  obtained  at  most  any  hour.  In  the 
sparsely  settled  regions  lunches  are  put  up  by  the  hotels 
which  can  be  carried  in  the  car  for  the  noonday  refresh- 
ment, care  being  taken  to  reach  the  next  settlement  for 
dinner  in  the  evening. 

The  evening  scene  in  a popular  tourist  hotel  reminds  one 
of  the  old  wayside  inns.  There  the  tourists,  usually 
spruced  up  for  the  evening,  with  the  travelers  ’ camaraderie, 
are  talking,  smoking,  and  enjoying  each  others’  company. 

Parks. — The  great  National  parks  are  being  used  more 
each  year  by  automobile  tourists.  Good  hotel  and  camping 
facilities  are  available.  These  parks  are  set  aside  by  the 
Government  for  the  preservation  of  marvelous  natural 
beauty  and  grandeur,  and  the  government  desires  that  they 
be  used  to  the  utmost  by  the  citizenry.  Perhaps  100,000 
people  will  visit  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  this  (1922) 
season,  of  which  75  per  cent  will  come  by  private  automo- 
bile. Naturally  the  larger  number  come  from  the  nearby 
states,  but  last  year  practically  all  states  were  represented. 
Montana  sending  2892  and  Maine  1.  The  patronage  is 
likely  to  continue  and  grow.  Other  National  parks  and 
the  United  States  Forest  Reserves  will  also  receive  their 
share. 

Several  states  are  beginning  to  recognize  the  need  for 
play  and  recreational  grounds.  New  York  has  built  a 
magnificent  automobile  road  up  the  Bronx  River  Parkway 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  461 

Drive  and  through  the  Adirondack^,  and  the  State  Con- 
servation Commission  has  built  along  these  highways  many 
stone  fireplaces  for  the  special  use  of  motorists.  Colorado 
is  building  an  automobile  road  up  Mount  Evans,  thus  head- 
ing off  private  parties  who  wished  Government  permission 
to  build  a toll  road.  Michigan  will  develop  tourist  roads 
to  attract  the  summer  traveler.  The  field  secretary  of  the 
State  Good  Roads  Association  maintains  that  such  roads 
will  bring  an  annual  revenue  to  Michigan  of  $75,000,000  to 
$100,000,000  annually  through  the  resort  trade.  Scarcely 
a state  but  has  some  attraction  to  the  tourist ; it  would  be 
well  to  make  its  advantages  known  to  the  public  that  they 
might  be  enjoyed  to  their  fullest  extent. 

Information. — The  last  sentence  brings  us  to  an  im- 
portant topic.  The  tourist  at  the  present  time  inquires  at 
the  nearest  garage  or  hotel  for  information  relative  to 
routes  and  condition  of  roads,  detours,  accommodations, 
etc.  This  is  well,  but  all  these  people  do  not  have  at  hand 
a knowledge  of  the  information  sought,  so  the  traveler  must 
pass  on  and  trust  to  luck  that  he  may  get  through.  Cham- 
bers of  Commerce  and  automobile  clubs  have  endeavored  to 
fill  the  want,  and  in  the  Middle  West  these  places  are 
sought  by  hundreds  of  people  daily.  Some  of  the  large 
newspapers  have  drawn  on  their  advantageous  news-gath- 
ering facilities  and  publish  each  morning  a statement  of 
road  conditions  and  detours. 

The  Minneapolis  J ournal  says  that  when  it  established  its 
bureau  of  travel  and  resort  information,  “the  new  agency 
was  overwhelmed  from  the  start  with  eager  inquirers  for 
facts  and  advice.”  Information  is  the  one  thing  that 
a tourist  fairly  yearns  for,  even  more  than  for  food,  gas, 
and  oil ; he  knows  where  to  go  to  satisfy  these  wants.  The 
manager  of  the  Journal,  Perry  S.  Williams,  who  is  also 
vice-president  of  the  Associated  Advertising  Clubs  of  the 
World,  has  in  mind  a plan  for  “dotting  the  whole  country- 
side with  little  information  bureaus,  where  the  traveler  can 
learn  what’s  what  and  feel  easy  in  relying  on  what  he 
learns.  Every  community  under  this  plan  is  to  have  its 


462  Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel 

own  bureau  and  to  make  it  easily  accessible  to  the  wan- 
derer. ’ ’ 

But  the  state  of  Wisconsin  which  has  long  been  among 
the  foremost  in  the  development  of  new  road  ideas,  has 
beaten  them  to  it,  for  already  the  Commission  conducts  a 
department  of  “Highway  Information  Service.”  A blue- 
print map  of  the  state  trunk  highway  system  is  furnished 
weekly  to  all  subscribers.  The  map  shows  the  type  of  road 
on  every  mile  of  the  system,  the  location  of  all  construction 
jobs  and  of  all  detours  and  the  condition  of  the  detours. 
The  map  is  revised  weekly.  Information  up  to  Tuesday  is 
mapped  and  in  the  hands  of  subscribers  by  Thursday,  in 
time  to  supply  information  for  week-end  motor  trips.  This 
information  is  sold  by  the  state  to  hotels,  commercial  asso- 
ciations, automobile  clubs,  garages,  and  other  places  where 
touring  information  is  sought.  The  map  is  54  by  60  inches 
in  size  and  mounted  on  a frame  or  bulletin  board  to  be 
placed  in  a conspicuous  place.  A charge  of  ten  dollars  is 
made  for  this  service  for  the  season  from  June  1 to  Sep- 
tember 15.  The  charge  barely  covers  the  cost  of  blue- 
printing. 

While  it  may  be  the  duty  of  the  state  to  furnish  the 
roads  and  do  all  possible  to  promote  transportation,  local 
bureaus  will  be  able  to  supplement  the  State’s  information 
in  a very  acceptable  manner. 

SELECTED  REFERENCES 

Bell,  H.  H.,  “Improved  Lighting  System  to  be  Installed  on  the 
Lincoln  Highway,”  Electrical  World,  Vol.  LXXIX,  pp. 
731-732. 

Blanchard,  Harold,  F.,  “A  Comparison  of  Ramp  and  Elevator 
Types  of  Garages,”  Bus  Transportation,  June,  1922. 

Brook,  Mark,  “Highway  Signs,”  American  Highway  Engineers’ 
Handbook,  pp.  1390-1394. 

Capper,  Arthur,  “The  Midwest  Farm  Market  for  Motor 
Trucks,”  National  Automobile  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New 
York. 

Eno,  William  Phelps,  “Science  of  Highway  Traffic,”  Published 
by  himself  and  distributed  by  Brentano’s,  New  York. 


Aids  and  Attractions  to  Traffic  and  Travel  463 


Evans,  P.  and  Batchelder,  A.  6.,  “Direction  and  Distance 
Signs,”  Engineering  and  Contracting,  July  30,  1913. 
Ferguson,  0.  J.,  “Electric  Lighting,”  Chap.  XXI,  McGraw-Hill 
Book  Company,  New  York. 

Firestone  Ship  by  Truck  Bureau,  Akron, 

Bulletin  No.  7,  “The  Motor  Truck  Terminal.” 

Harrison,  J.  L.,  “Color  Schemes  for  Highway  Signs,”  Engi- 
neering and  Contracting,  Oct.  13,  1915,  p.  280. 

Isabella,  N.  M.,  “The  Wisconsin  Idea  as  Applied  to  Detours 
a Source  of  Satisfaction  to  Motorists,”  Concrete  Highway 
Magazine,  April,  1922,  Chicago. 

Jenkins,  Alfred,  “A  Motorized  City,”  National  Automobile 
Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Jessup,  Elon,  “The  Motor  Camping  Book,”  G.  P.  Putnam’s 
Sons,  New  York. 

Lewis,  Nelson  P.,  “The  Planning  of  the  Modern  City,”  pp. 
240-246,  John  Wiley  & Sons. 

“Omaha  Union  Stage  Depot,”  Bus  Transportation,  Yol.  1,  p.  45. 
Putnam,  Nina  Wilcox,  “A  Jitney  Guide  to  the  Santa  Fe  Trail,” 
Saturday  Evening  Post,  June  10,  1922. 

Halvorson,  C.  A.  B.,  Jr.  and  Hussey,  R.  B.,  “Illumination  of 
Highways,”  Engineering  and  Contracting,  Yol.  LVI,  pp. 
535-536. 

Underwood,  W.  E.,  “The  Trend  of  Modern  Practice  in  Street 
Lighting,”  Engineering  World,  Vol.  XVII,  pp.  348-351. 
Williar,  Harry  D.,  Jr.,  Articles  on  Road  Signs,  Public  Roads, 
August,  1921,  and  Engineering  and  Contracting,  October 

5,  1921. 


INDEX 


Accidents,  highway,  and  their 
mitigation,  351-380 
Agriculture,  stage  of,  in  develop- 
ment of  civilization,  4-6.  See 
Farms 

Amos  log  loader,  working  of,  299 
Anderson,  A.  P.,  tables  from 
“ Modern  Road  Building  and 
Maintenance  ” by,  269 
Appian  Way,  famous  highway, 
23-24 

Ashley,  Wm.  H.,  founder  of  Rocky 
Mountain  Fur  Company,  54 
Asia,  early  highways  in  western, 
19-21 

Asphalt  and  asphalt  block  roads, 
good  qualities  of,  265-266 
Assessments  for  highway  improve- 
ment, 311-321 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  exploring  ex- 
pedition organized  by,  55 
Automobiles,  railway  passenger 
earnings  affected  by,  163;  ef- 
fects of,  on  street-car  lines,  164- 
166;  great  use  of,  for  pleasure 
passenger  traffic,  187-189;  es- 
timate of  cost  per  mile  of  riding 
in,  189  n.;  changes  in  society 
produced  by,  203-208;  effects 
on  health,  211-213;  and  crime, 
213-214;  percentage  of  acci- 
dents due  to,  351-352;  respon- 
sibility of  the  driver  for  acci- 
dents and  their  avoidance,  352- 
355;  horns  for,  356-357;  stop- 
ping on  grades,  backing,  etc., 
357-358;  miscellaneous  causes 
of  accidents,  358  ff.;  ranking 
and  parking  of,  420-425;  ramp 
and  elevator  garages  for, 
427-429;  gas,  air,  and  water 
stations,  433-434 
Automotive  transportation,  anal- 
ysis and  discussion  of,  181-218 


Auto  trucks,  effects  of,  on  rail- 
roads, 163-164.  See  Trucking 
by  motor 

Babson,  Roger  W.,  quoted  on  rela- 
tions between  railways  and  auto 
trucks,  163-164 

Backing  of  cars,  accidents  due  to, 
357-358 

Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  ori- 
gins of,  102 

Beautification  of  roads,  discussion 
of,  382-416 

Bible,  references  in,  to  highways, 
19-20 

Bicycles,  influence  of,  on  roads, 
127-136;  highway  accidents 
due  to,  378 

Bodies,  removable,  a device  for 
loading  and  unloading  freight, 
191-192 

Bonds,  issuing  of,  for  highway 
financing,  322-323 ; kinds  of, 
323-327;  total  cost  of  a loan, 
by  the  three  kinds,  327-328; 
the  term  of,  328-331 

Boone,  Daniel,  “ Autobiography  ” 
quoted,  40-42 

Boone’s  Trace,  account  of,  39-43 

Boston,  early  railroads  centering 
at,  105 

Brakes,  parts  played  by,  in  auto- 
mobile accidents,  359-360 

Brick  roads,  good  qualities  of,  264 

Bridger  Pass,  discovery  of,  54 

Bridges,  road  accidents  caused  by, 
368 

Buses.  See  Motor-buses 

Cabot,  Philip,  article  by,  on  New 
England  railways,  cited,  162; 
calculations  and  figures  by, 
171-172 


465 


466 


Index 


Calk,  William,  “ Diary  ” of, 
quoted,  43-46 

Camden  & Amboy  R.R.,  charter- 
ing of,  104 

Camping  grounds  for  motor  tour- 
ists, 451-456 

Canals,  era  of,  in  England,  14-15; 
in  America,  70-75;  passenger 
traffic  on,  75-76;  inability  of, 
to  compete  with  railways,  and 
results,  76-77;  ship,  77;  Sault 
Ste.  Marie,  Welland,  and  Cape 
Cod,  77;  Panama  Canal,  77-88 
Canoes,  travel  and  transportation 
by,  34-35 

Cape  Cod,  ship  canal  across,  77 
Cattle.  See  Stock  raising 
Census.  See  Traffic  census 
Central  Pacific  Ry.,  building  of, 

112 

Charleston  & Hamburg  R.R., 
budding  of,  103 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal, 
building  of,  73 

Civilization,  transportation  a 
measure  of,  1 ff.;  five  stages  in, 
1-2;  stage  of  Direct  Appropri- 
ation, 2-4;  Pastoral  Stage,  4; 
Agricultural  Stage,  4-5;  Handi- 
craft Stage,  6—12 ; Industrial 
Stage,  14-48 

Clark,  William.  See  Lewis  and 
Clark 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  terms  of, 
83 

Clermont,  Robert  Fulton’s  steam- 
boat, 89 

Clinton,  De  Witt,  efforts  of,  in  be- 
half of  canal-building,  71 
Coaches.  See  Stagecoaches 
Colonial  days,  transportation  in, 
34-46 

Concrete  roads,  good  and  poor 
qualities  of,  264 

Consolidated  Rural  Schools,  im- 
portance of  motor  transporta- 
tion to,  208-210 

Container,  the  demountable,  176, 
192-193 

Cooper,  Peter,  locomotive  built 
and  operated  by,  100-101 
Cooperative  marketing,  advan- 
tages of,  277-282 


Corporations,  financing  of  high- 
way transportation  by,  345 
Credit  Mobilier,  notorious  rail- 
way-construction scandal,  115- 
116 

Crime,  the  automobile  and,  213- 
214 

“ Cross  Crossings  Cautiously  ” 
campaign,  380 

Culverts,  road  accidents  caused 
by,  368 

Cumberland  Road,  building  of, 
62-64;  extension  of,  64-66 
Curves,  dangers  of,  367 

Dairying,  use  of  motor  truck  in, 
293-294 

De  Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  and  Pana- 
ma Canal,  80-84 

Des  Moines,  Iowa,  good  roads 
movement  at,  132-133 
Destruction  of  highways,  factors 
in,  245-248 

Detour  signs,  442-443;  location 
of,  443 

Distance  and  direction  signs  for 
motorists,  436-437 
Driver,  responsibility  of  the,  for 
automobile  accidents,  352-355 
Dunlop,  J.  B.,  inventor  of  pneu- 
matic tire,  128 

Du  Pont  Road,  example  of  private 
financing  of  highway,  307-308 
Durability,  an  important  factor  in 
road  building,  254 

Earth  roads,  good  and  poor  quali- 
ties of,  263 

Efficiency  outline  of  motor  trans- 
port, 225-227 

Electric-light  poles  along  high- 
ways, 412—413 

Electric  traction,  operation  of 
street  cars  by,  122-124 
Elevator  garages,  427—428 
Engine.  See  Steam  engine 
Eno,  William  Phelps,  develop- 
ment of  traffic  regulation  due 
to  efforts  of,  378-379;  cited  on 
width  of  parking  spaces,  423; 
cited  on  opera  house  traffic, 
426,  427 


Index 


467 


Eno  Foundation  for  Highway- 
Traffic  Regulation,  Inc.,  379-380 
Erie  Canal,  building  of,  70-72; 

small  profit  from,  75 
Esthetics,  highway,  382-416 
Express  rates,  reduction  of,  due  to 
short-haul  motor  trucking,  174- 
175 

Express  terminal  stations,  429-433 

Factory  products,  transportation 
of,  by  motor  truck,  301-303 
Farms,  meaning  of  the  automobile 
to,  177 ; motor  trucking  to  and 
from,  193-201;  Rural  Mail 
Delivery  one  of  many  modern 
advantages,  210-211 
Federal  aid,  financing  of  highways 
and  transportation  lines  by, 
332-334;  present  state  of,  334- 
335;  plan  of  local  matching  of 
Federal  Aid  dollars,  335-342 
Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  passage  of, 
152-153;  provisions  of,  153- 
154;  rules  and  regulations  for 
carrying  out,  154-156;  marked 
success  of,  156 

Feudal  system,  government  under 
the,  5-6 

Financing,  highway,  343-349 
Forestry,  use  of  motor  truck  in, 
295-298 

France,  traffic  censuses  in,  236- 
237,  240-242 

Garages,  public,  427-429 
Gardening,  road,  382-387 
Gasoline,  stations  for  selling,  433 
Gila  Trail,  55;  route  of,  58 
“ Good  roads  ” movement,  growth 
of,  128-129 

Government,  U.  S.,  attitude 
toward  river  improvement,  94- 
97;  ownership  of  railways  by, 
112;  aid  of  state  and  Federal, 
for  better  roads,  147-156 
Grain  exchanges,  account  of,  275- 
277 

Gravel  roads,  good  and  poor  quali- 
ties of,  263-264 

Greece,  effects  on  ancient,  of  lack 
of  roads,  21-22 


Greeley,  Horace,  quoted  on  canals, 
76 

Guides,  highway,  for  motorists, 
435-445 

Guilds,  medieval,  6-8;  destruc- 
tion or  lapsing  of,  9—10;  func- 
tions taken  over  by  govern- 
ment, 10 

Handicrafts,  stage  of,  in  growth 
of  civilization,  6-12 
Harding,  President,  discussion 
of  transportation  problem  by, 

217-218 

Harriman  interests,  railway  lines 
held  by,  117 

Haulage.  See  Trucking  by  motor 
Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  terms  of, 
84 

Health,  the  automobile  and,  211- 
213 

Henderson,  James,  early  Ameri- 
can pioneer,  39-43 
Highway,  distinction  between 
road  and,  222 

Highways,  important  early,  19-22 ; 
of  ancient  Rome,  22-27 ; classi- 
fication of,  222;  planning 
systems  of,  222  ff.;  units  of 
systems,  227-229;  principles  of 
esthetic  construction  applied 
to,  382-416.  See  also  Roads 
Hogs.  See  Stock  raising 
Hoover,  Secretary,  quoted  on  farm 
motor  trucks,  197 
Horine,  M.  C.,  “ Economics  of 
Motor  Transport  ” by,  quoted, 
225-227 

Horns  for  automobiles,  356-357 
Hotels,  accommodations  for  tour- 
ists in,  460 

Humboldt  River  route,  discovery 
of,  54 

Husband,  Joseph,  “ Story  of  the 
Pullman  Car  ” by,  120-121 

Individual  financing  of  highway 
transportation,  343-344 
Information,  supplying  of,  to  auto- 
mobile tourists,  461-462 
Interurban  railways,  effects  of 
motor  competition  on,  164 


468 


Index 


Intra-city  traffic,  calculations  con- 
cerning, 170 

Inventions,  industrial  stage  of 
civilization  brought  about  by, 
14-15 

Iron,  invention  of  new  methods 
of  smelting,  15 
Italy,  traffic  censuses  in,  242 

Jay  walking,  as  a cause  of  acci- 
dents, 377 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase arranged  by,  48 
Jerusalem,  effects  upon,  of  stra- 
tegic position,  20 

Jitneys,  earnings  of  street-car 
lines  diminished  by,  165 ; impor- 
tance of  business  done  by,  183 
John  Bull,  locomotive,  102 
Joliet,  Louis,  early  explorer,  46 

Kay,  John,  inventor  of  fly  shuttle, 
16 

Kentucky,  Boone’s  path  into,  42; 

early  railroads  in,  106 
Knight,  Jonathan,  coning  of  en- 
gine wheels  invented  by,  101  n. 

Lancaster  turnpike,  building  of, 
60-61 

Land,  grants  of,  to  railways,  110; 

grants  to  Pacific  roads,  111-114 
Later  California  Trail,  route  of,  57 
Lauck,  W.  J.,  quoted  on  avoid- 
able railway  wastes,  175  n. 
League  of  American  Wheelmen, 
organization  of,  128;  good  roads 
movement  sponsored  by,  129- 
136 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition,  ac- 
count of,  48-53 

Lighting  of  roads  and  streets,  447- 
449 

Lights,  on  cars,  as  sources  of  dan- 
ger, 361-362;  for  non-motor- 
ized  traffic,  378 

Loading  and  unloading  freight, 
devices  for,  191-194 
Locomotive,  invention  and  early 
development  of,  18;  the  first, 
99-103;  progress  in  mechanical 
development  of,  119-120 


Louisiana  Territory,  purchase  of, 
48 

Lumbering,  improved  methods  in, 
due  to  motor  truck,  295-300 

Macadam,  J.  L.,  road  construction 
by,  60 

Macadam  roads,  good  and  poor 
qualities  of,  264 

MacDonald,  T.  H.,  classification 
of  highways  by,  222 
Manse,  W.  H.,  cited  on  waste  by 
railways,  176 

Map  signs,  sizes  of,  439-441 
Marketing,  effect  of  ease  and  cost 
of  transportation  on  production 
and,  273-304 

Marks,  highway,  for  motorists, 
435-445 

Marquette,  Jacques,  explorations 
of,  46-48 

Massachusetts,  state  aid  for  high- 
ways in,  150-151 

Merger,  railway  consolidation  by, 
117 

Michigan  Central  R.R.,  begin- 
nings of,  106 

Mining,  use  of  motor  trucks  in 
connection  with,  300-301 
Mississippi  River,  steamboat 
transportation  on,  90-91 
Mohawk  & Hudson  Company, 
chartering  of,  103 
Moore,  W.  H.,  “ good  roads 

booster,”  139 

Morgan  interests,  railway  lines 
held  by,  117 

Motor-buses,  relations  between 
street-car  lines  and,  165-166; 
character  of  business  done  by, 
184-187;  extent  of  suburban 
and  interurban,  196;  terminal 
stations  for,  429-433 
Motor  transport  efficiency  out- 
line, 225-227 

National  Good  Roads  Associa- 
tion, activities  of,  139 
National  Road.  See  Cumberland 
Road 

National  system  of  highways,  ar- 
guments for,  227-229 


Index 


469 


Nebraska  State  Journal,  editorial 
from,  204-205 

New  England,  early  railways  in, 
105 

New  Orleans,  importance  of,  due 
to  river  traffic,  90-91 
New  York  Central  & Hudson 
River  R.R.,  beginnings  of,  103- 
104 

New  York  City,  Governor  Clin- 
ton’s prophecy  concerning, 
71-72 

New  York  State,  canal-building 
in,  70-74;  automobile  roads  in, 
460-461 

Nicaragua,  canal  route  across,  84 
“ No  Accident  ” campaigns,  380 
Novelty,  Ericsson’s  locomotive, 
100  n. 

Nye,  Bill,  quoted  on  roads,  ISO- 
131 

Office  of  Public  Roads  Inquiry, 
instituted,  136-137;  duties  and 
scope  of,  widened,  143-144 
O’Hanlon,  J.,  “ Irish  Emigrant’s 
Guide  to  United  States,” 
quoted,  93 

Ohio,  first  railway  in,  105-106 
Ohio  Valley,  early  fines  of  travel 
to,  37-38 

Old  Ironsides,  first  Baldwin  loco- 
motive, 102 

Opera  house  traffic,  special  ar- 
rangement for,  426-427 
Oregon  Trail,  traffic  over,  54-55; 
origin  of  the,  55-57 ; final  route 
of,  57 

Pacific  railways,  building  of  and 
land  grants  to,  111-114 
Packing  of  goods  on  turnpikes, 
58-60 

Page,  L.  W.,  worker  for  good 
roads,  142,  144 

Palestine,  roads  and  highways  of, 
19-20 

Panama  Canal,  history  of,  77-88 
Parking  of  automobiles,  421-422; 
spaces  for,  a convenience  to 
motorists,  422-425 
Parks,  National,  visited  by  auto- 
mobile tourists,  460-461 


Partnership,  financing  of  high- 
way transportation  by,  344- 
345 

Pedestrians,  contributory  negli- 
gence of,  toward  accidents, 
37&-377;  rule  for,  on  country 
roads,  377-378 

Pennsylvania,  turnpikes  in,  61 
Pennsylvania  R.R.,  railways  held 
by  same  interests,  118 
Peru,  roads  in  ancient,  27-31 
Pioneer,  Illinois  Central  locomo- 
tive, 108 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  growth  of,  72 
Plants,  climbing,  for  use  in  road 
gardening,  411-412 
Pleasure  passenger  traffic,  use  of 
automobiles  for,  187-189 
Poles,  telephone  and  other,  along 
highways,  412-415 
Pope,  Albert  A.,  worker  for  good 
roads,  133,  136 

Portages,  importance  of,  in  early 
American  period,  36-37 
Potter,  I.  B.,  good  roads  advocate, 
129 

Poughkeepsie,  Bus  Terminal  Sta- 
tion at,  431-433 

Poultry  business,  efficiency  of 
motor  truck  in,  294-295 
Prescott,  W.  H.,  “ Conquest  of 
Peru,”  quoted,  28-31 
Production  and  marketing,  rela- 
tion between  ease  and  cost  of 
transportation  and,  273  ff. 
Public  ownership,  as  a method  of 
financing  transportation  lines, 
347-349 

Pullman  cars,  development  of, 
120-122 

Railway  crossings,  accidents  at, 
368-370;  increase  in  accidents 
due  to  automobiles,  370-372; 
means  of  diminishing  fatalities, 
372-376 

Railways,  early  development  of, 
in  England,  17-18;  effects  of,  on 
canals,  76-77 ; account  of  growth 
and  development  of,  99-116; 
consolidation  of,  116-118;  me- 
chanical development  of,  1 19— 
120;  street,  122;  relation  be- 


470 


Index 


tween  transportation  on,  and 
on  highways,  159-168 
Ramp  and  elevator  type  garages, 
427-429 

Ranking  of  cars,  421-425 
Regulations,  road  and  traffic,  378- 
380 

Resistance  of  road  surfaces,  255- 
257;  due  to  grade,  257-261 
Richmond,  Va.,  first  electric  rail- 
way operated  for  profit  in,  123 
River  and  Harbor  Improvement 
Bills,  96-97 

Rivers,  government's  attitude 
toward  improvement  of,  94-97 
Road,  distinction  between  high- 
way and,  222 

Roads,  prehistoric  American,  27- 
31;  early,  in  North  America, 
35-36;  evolution  of  modern 
wagon,  126  ff.;  influence  of 
bicycle  on,  127-136;  building 
of  object-lesson,  142-144;  state 
and  Federal  aid  for,  147-156; 
good,  as  agencies  for  health, 

212- 213;  selection  of  suitable 
type,  252-254;  types  of,  and 
their  qualities,  263;  compari- 
son of  types  of,  266-270;  bad, 
as  causes  of  accidents,  363-364; 
naming  and  numbering  of, 
434-435.  See  also  Highways 

Robbery,  automobiles  used  in, 

213- 214 

Rocket,  George  Stephenson’s  loco- 
motive, 100  n. 

Rome,  roads  of  ancient,  22-27 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  and  the 
Panama  Canal,  85-86 
Rotary  scheme  for  traffic,  424- 
426 

Rural  Free  Delivery,  an  agency 
for  better  roads,  144-147;  ef- 
fects of,  on  farmer’s  life,  210-211 

“ Safety  First  ” campaign,  380 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  as  a fur  center, 
53-54 

Salt  Lake  Trail,  route  of,  57 
Sand-clay  roads,  good  and  poor 
qualities  of,  263 

San  Francisco,  cable  cars  in,  122 
Sanitariness  of  roads,  262 


Santa  Fe  Trail,  traffic  over,  54-55; 
route  of,  58 

Saturday  Evening  Post,  quoted  on 
vandalism,  215 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  ship  canal  and 
locks  at,  77 

Schools,  motor  transportation  and 
the  consolidation  of,  208-210 
Semaphores,  use  of,  by  traffic 
officers,  445-446 

Service  stations  for  automobiles, 
433-434 

Shrubs,  for  planting  along  roads, 
403-411 

Signal  lights  and  colors,  446-447 
Signs,  highway,  for  motorists, 
435-445 

Skidding,  accidents  due  to,  359 
Sleeping  car,  evolution  of  the,  120- 
122 

Slipperiness  of  road  surfaces,  261- 
262 

Smith,  Jedediah,  discoveries  of, 
54 

South  Pass,  discovery  of,  54 
Spanish  Trail,  traffic  over,  54-55; 
route  of,  58 

Speedometer,  as  an  essential,  363 
Speed  signs  for  motorists,  444 
Spooning  in  automobiles,  215 
Stagecoaches,  era  of,  in  England, 
11-12;  on  Cumberland  Road, 
64-65 

State  aid,  147-152;  financing 
highways  and  transportation 
lines  by,  334 

State  system  of  highways,  argu- 
ments for,  229-230 
Steamboats,  the  first,  89-90;  on 
Mississippi  River,  90-91;  in- 
creasing luxuriance  of,  91-93; 
dangers  connected  with  early, 
93;  fares  on,  94 

Steam  engine,  Watt's  improve- 
ments on  early,  15-16;  at- 
tempts to  use,  in  locomotives, 
99-100 

Stephenson,  George,  improvement 
of  locomotive  by,  18;  first 
locomotive  put  out  by,  100 
Stevens,  John,  called  father  of 
American  railroads,  100 
Stock  raising,  effect  of  marketing 


Index 


471 


facilities  and  road  transporta- 
tion on,  284-293 

Stock  subscriptions  for  highway 
financing,  331 

Stockton  & Darlington  R.R., 
completion  of,  101 

Stock  watering,  meaning  of,  116 

Stopping  cars  on  grades,  streets, 
etc.,  357 

Street-car  service,  progress  in,  122; 
effect  of  motor  transportation 
on,  164;  effects  of  taxicabs, 
jitneys,  and  buses,  165-167 ; 
competition  between  motor- 
buses  and,  185-186 

Superelevation  of  outer  side  of 
curved  roadway,  364-366 

Systems  of  highways,  planning  of, 
222-270 

Taxes  for  road  construction,  309- 
321 

Taxicabs,  character  and  impor- 
tance of  business  done  by,  183- 
184 

Telephone  poles,  highways  dis- 
figured by,  412-413;  location 
of,  414-415 

Telford,  Thomas,  road  construc- 
tion by,  60 

Terminals,  waste  at  railway,  176; 
transferring  between,  by  motor- 
bus,  187 ; improvement  of  facili- 
ties at,  caused  by  motor  trans- 
portation, 201-203;  for  buses 
and  express  service,  429-433 

Tom  Thumb,  Peter  Cooper’s  loco- 
motive, 101 

Touring  by  motor,  amount  of, 
450-451;  camping  grounds  for 
use  in,  451-456;  camp  sites, 
458-460 

Towns,  truck  and  bus  lines  be- 
tween, 194—196 

Traffic,  one  way  and  rotary,  425- 
426;  taking  care  of  opera  house, 
426-427;  guides  for,  in  cities, 
444-445 

Traffic  census,  taking  a,  for  plan- 
ning of  highway,  234-236; 
methods  of  taking,  236-238; 
classification  of  traffic  in,  239- 
245 


Transcontinental  railway  lines, 
land  grants  to  and  construction 
of,  111-115 

Transportation,  a measure  of 
civilization,  1-32;  classified  as 
primary  and  secondary,  159; 
interrelation  between  highway 
and  other  kinds  of,  159  ff . ; 
legitimate  fields  of  agencies  of, 
168-170;  analysis  and  discus- 
sion of  automotive,  181-202; 
social  aspect  of  motor,  203-208; 
effect  of  ease  and  cost  of,  on 
production  and  marketing,  273- 
304;  financing  of  lines  of,  306- 
343;  financing  highway,  343- 
349 

Transylvania  Republic,  early  set- 
tlement called,  43 

Trees,  for  planting  along  roads, 
385-403 

Tresaguet,  French  highway  en- 
gineer, 60 

Trucking  by  motor,  effects  of, 
on  railway  earnings,  163-164; 
length  of  haul  for  economical, 
170-174;  reduction  of  express 
rates  due  to  short-haul,  174- 
175;  freight  traffic  cost  under 
system  of,  190-194;  traffic  be- 
tween towns,  194-196;  general 
effect  of  ease  and  cost  of,  on 
production  and  marketing,  273- 
304 

Turnpikes,  era  of,  in  America, 
58-60;  construction  of,  60-61; 
effects  of  railways  on,  61-62 

Types  of  roadway,  comparison  of, 
266-270 

Uniformity  in  distance  and  direc- 
tion signs  for  motorists,  437-438 

Union  Pacific  Ry.,  building  of, 
112-114 

United  States,  transportation 
development  in,  34—67 

Units,  of  highway  systems,  227- 
229;  of  traffic,  240-242 

Vandalism  by  visitors  to  country, 
215 

Vanderbilt  interests,  railway  lines 
held  by,  117 


472 


Index 


Vehicles,  unlighted,  as  sources  of 
danger,  362-363 

Vincent,  C.,  “ Letters  on  Grain 
Marketing  Problems,”  quoted, 
276-277,  280 

Virginia,  transportation  improve- 
ments in  early,  61;  first  rail- 
roads in,  107 

Vision,  clear,  as  a means  of  safety, 
366-367 ; obstacles  that  ob- 
scure, a cause  of  accidents  to 
pedestrians,  377 

Wagon  road,  the  modern,  126-156 

Walker,  American  filibuster  in 
Nicaragua,  80 


Warning  signs  for  motorists,  439 
Washington  Turnpike  Company 
bill,  67 

Waste,  methods  of  avoiding,  by 
railways,  175-177 
Waterways,  settlement  near,  in 
early  American  period,  36-37. 
See  Canals  and  Rivers 
Watkins,  Albert,  quoted  on  Ore- 
gon Trail,  56-57 

Welland  Canal,  traffic  through,  77 
Wilderness  Road,  the,  39-43 
Williams,  Perry  S.,  plan  of,  for 
information  bureaus  for  travel- 
ers, 461 

Wood  block  roads,  qualities  of,  265 


Date  Dne 


m ?r 


Duke  University  Libraries 


625.7 


4 ■ 


C492H  121617 


